Back to Table of Contents 4
To next page
Mohammad ebn Mahmud ebn Ahmad Tusi;
'Aja'eb al-Makhluqat va Ghara'eb al-Mojudat
(1160) (The Wonders of Creation) From Tusi in Khorasan
--------------------------------------------------

Muhammad b. Mahmud b. Ahmad Tusi Salmani; a native of Tuth, a town in western Iran. The titles: The Wonders of Creatures and the Bizarreness of All Things; and also: Book of Wonders  and Cup to Reflect the World. This book consists of a preface and 10 parts: 1: The wonders of celestial bodies; 2: The wonders of what happens between fire and heaven and earth; 3: Wonders of the earth, water and sea; 4: Wonders of cities; 5: Wonders of trees and herbs; 6: Wonders of statues and mausoleums; 7: Human Wonders; 8: The Wonders of Jins; 9: The Wonders of Birds; 10: Animal Wonders. East Africa is mentioned in lots of little anecdotes mostly mythical. The very primitive map of the Indian Ocean is known because the names on the East African coast do not appear on any other map.

The pictures here come from three different manuscripts + the printed book. 

Gotha Codex Persicus 35

-------------------------------

Taken from; The Miller Atlas.
The map of the Indian Ocean shown is unique as the places shown on the east coast of Africa do not appear in any other manuscript.

I tried to find an explanation for the East African names in this map. I only reached to find one for the Gold-Mountain on the bottom left. Taken out 'Hudud al Alam (982) p56':

The first of the islands of this great sea is called Goldisland (dhahabiya); its periphery is of 300 farsangs and it possesses gold-mines and many cultivated lands (abadhani), and its inhabitants are called Waqwaqian Zangi (Zangiyan-i Waqwaqi). All are naked and man-eaters (mardum-khwar). Chinese merchants go there in great numbers, carrying iron and food, which they sell to the inhabitants for gold, using signs and without saying a word to each other.

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des manuscrits, Supplément Persan 332
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

From a 1388 AD manuscript from Paris the following information is extracted.
Taken from the website of the French National Library

The full title of this book is Kitab Aja ib al-Makhluqat wa Ghara ib [al-]Maujudat. The author's name does not appear in any manuscript and evidence of authorship remains problematic. However, Hajji Khalifa attributes the work to Mohammed bin Mahmud bin Ahmad al-Tusi al-Salmani.

F. 197.- In black Africa, a people where the men are coloured in black and white spots and who are afraid of other people.

F. 197.- The people of Zakagi, on an island between the land of the Zang and the Barbar and where the people don’t stop transporting merchandise brought by the merchants.

 F. 196v.- The people of Zang, who are savages, fat and with faces that resemble those of the Turks

F. 46v.- The Sea of Zanzibar (Zang) where previously king Kay Husraw lived in a place called : Fam al-asad (the Mouth of the Lion), marine creatures with the head of a goat and fish with the head of sea monsters.

The ms has a heap of paintings showing African people. All pictures from the French National Library.

The printed copy of this book.

------------------------------

Taken from: A Japanese Translation of the Ajayib al-Mahluqat by MORIKAWA Tomoko

Part 2: About the wonders occurring between the heavens and the earth

P82-83

Water and air do not change in their essence. It's the same as the fire doesn't change. However, the air on the border of Zangbar

gives blackness near the ground, and the air on the border of Slav (ṣaqaliba) (1) gives whiteness. The Arabs who come to Khorasan (2)

change their nature. Locusts in the wilderness are earth-colored, but green in the garden. Also, the turtle bug (gazanda) on the

head of a young man is black, but the one on the head of an old man is white. Obviously, the face of an Ethiopian (ḥabasiyan) is

not as good as that of a Turkic. The men in the borders of the Nabataean (3)(nabaṭ) in Maysan (4)  have crocodile-like tails. If a sailor

sees a Nabataean (3), he will think of his face as the face of an ape (buzina). In the Maghreb border, there are people who have

mutated due to rotten water, soil, and air, but because of their ignorance they do not try to move from there, and over time their

hair grows and their tails grow longer. Also, in the northern wind area (mahabb), humans become apes. If you want to know, look

at the faces of the Zanzibars and the Cifcaq (=Turkish tribe). And compare the Ethiopian and Turkic bodies. Then you will see how

much the influence of air and soil is.

Part 3 About the wonders of the earth, water and the sea

P94

Tigris (Dijla) is a river that forms the boundary with the country of Zanju (Bilad al-Zanj). Fish of the country of Zanju come to

Tigris. Called; fish swallow (mahi-yi parastuj). It is a difficult road they have to overcome the terrible and rough seas, from

Bahr al-Zanj to the Tigris, none remain in Zanju. Tigris is then  filled with fish. Then again back to the sea of Zanzibar

(Darya-yi Zangbar)…..…You can see the fish as migratory birds heading to warmer regions. Every month you see fish you

did not see the previous month (5).

P95 

There is a big lake (Buhayra-yi Zara) (More common translation is Bahr al Zanj). The water is dangerous, and it has big wave.

There there is a place called Fam al-asad (the mouth of the lion) where a waterfall falls into the lake. The noise is beyond the

reach of heaven. For 15 parasang (6) in any direction its sound is heard. It is said that as follows. Kai Husrou (7) lived there, and

there were water people and (gaw-i abi) water cow (8).

P96

Long hair [people of the water, the body is hairy, like a buffalo head, the hands stand behind, the foot are growing in the front

it is a race, such as fish and crocodiles. Until you reach the land (where Kai Husrou (7) was), six months by ship. And, on top of

the mountain of Kuh-i Alburz (9) the fort Gang was built.

The big sea Bahr al-Zanj is to be reached from Oman it is at seven parasang (6).

It is a black dark sea. There is nothing there. Who drinks the water will get (jarab) scabies. The people are always suffering

from scabies, there are none, who do not have scabies. Children just born from there mothers have scabies. (32)

P97 

Aden and Jaharufuru (10) and Sihr (11) and past the sea of Oman: Barbar it goes on after that to reach Oman and Multan (12) and further

Salahit (35) and Qamarun (36).

P102 

The Nil is a big river. It issues at the other side of the equator, behind the land of Ethiopia, … Nile flows from south… from

the countries (uwwar) of the one-eyed people. They are a tribe of blacks. There Nile is divided into two branches; one called

green river: (Nahr al-ahdar) and the other Nahr al-abyad: white river ….

P103

When the Nile water is rising; on the other side of he world the Nil in the country of Zanzibar reduces flowing.

P128 

Mountain of Barbar (Jabal-i Barbar) is a mountain with a tower on its top. The top of the tower has many holes, and flame

always burn from there. There is the same at Tarabulis (13).

P129

Jabal al-jari (moving mountain) is a mountain in the sea of Zanzibar. The width of this mountain is 4 parasang (6), trees grow

on this mountain. (The mountain) of 4 parasang (6) moves in the spring, it comes close to the islands in spring. The islands

have a lot of human and bird. People go and collect fruit and firewood  in this mountain, then the mountain moves back to

the original location.

P144 

In Zanzibar there is on one of the islands, a place where the gold is growing like grass (zaban-i gaw). There are ants who

when biting can make a large tear in the belly of a human. Not only is this a dangerous road, in front lays a dangerous place.

In its neighborhood there are a lot of leopards, and people wear their fur.

Part 4 About towns, mosques and cathedrals

P223

Zanzibar also has a golden dome, in which there is an idol with a ring of gold. Before that idol there is a tree with seven fruits.

[The] grape, fig, dai dai (14), apple, citron, karin (15), pomegranate. It fruits twice a year every year. At the tip of the tree there is a

crescent shaped iron hook. The people of Zanj extended their necks there, hanging in front of this statue, the head is thrown

to one side and the body to the other. Hinds people pray in front of idols in this way …………….

P230 

Zangbar is also referred to as Zanju. There are big towns, but the land is dry, less of a blessing. The building are few, it is

on the edge of the sea of Fars (16). Except for a few there are no green plants. People of Zanzibar are constantly at war. It is a

stubborn people. Those who went to Zanzibar become always militant. Knowledge and sagacity is not found among the

people of Zanzibar. It is humble tribe, corrupt, ignorant, self-indulgence, cheerful. They are located among the Turkic

people and have the same face size in the same manner as they, the eyes narrow, there is no beard. Zabaju (17) is a tribe close

to them.

P249

There is no winter in Iraq. It is the same as there is no summer in mountainous areas. Similarly, there is no lightning in

Oman, there is no (damamil) pus wound in Tihama (18), there is no (jarab) scabies in Jazira (19), in Zanzibar there is no plague (taun)

epidemic, there is no (tab) fever in Sham (Syria),.....

P276

Nuba is a region full of grace. The national capital is Dunkra (Dongola); there are 7 fortifications. It borders Ethiopia in the area

beyond the Nile's water source. There are rhinos and giraffes there. I will mention them in the animal chapter. The river also

carries the black Ebony (Abanus) tree, but no one knows where it grows. On the banks of the Nile, all Ummahs (communities)

are Islamic enemies except for Nubia and Copts. These two and Frank, Slavs, Ethiopia (people), etc. are all Christians. Emeralds

are brought from Dunkra.

P280

Inflammation of the blood of Khorasan (2), fever of the Hejaz (20), scabies in Zanzibar (32), spleen inflammation in Bahrain,

P300

About the fatal disease and epidemics that occurred in various age.

……………

Disease, such as inflammation (hun-suhta) occurs. Wise men called it: plague (taun). It is greater in Cham (Sham=Syria) [the plague].

There are various abscess (damamil) in Zanzibar, there is a (tab-ha) fever in Khaybar………….

Part 5 Trees, fruits and herbs - arranged in alphabetical order

P307

Ebony (abnus) is a strange wood. I do not know, that anyone saw the habitat of this tree, wherever or whether they are

growing. Because they float out from the sea, people collect it. It is a precious wood, smells sweet when burned in the fire.

If you put the powder in the eyes, it takes the cloudiness out of the eye, to give you a great shine. …..

P320

There is also the Zanju who are naked , (to eat) a grain of a bunch (of grapes) there it should be taken to the mouth several

times.

P321

Al-qaranful (cloves) grows in Zanzibar. No one ever saw the place where it is grown.

(Merchants come) and place on the shore the silver Dirham (37), then the merchants leave. When they go back again the next

day, where there was a silver coin al-qaranful is put, the coin has been taken away. Al-qaranful (cloves) is a medicine that has been

blessed, it smell pungent, an unpleasant smell. It soothing the spirit. When applied as a drug, it improves the power of the

hands and feet.

P325

(21) Abu Hatim Sijistani: the date palm is a grace from the Creator to the people of Islam, not to unbelievers, it does not grow in

the land of Ethiopia, Nubia, Zanju, Hindu or at least not in big amounts, nor among the Turk. Sole, some say, some in the land of

Berber, because the army of Islam dropped a number of the seeds.

Part 7 About the wonder of human beings and its nature.

P419

About the one of the sea.

A merchant talked as follows. One day, on the shore of the sea of Zanzibar, A creature comes out from the sea; there was a fuss

between the sailors. The sailors captured it and tied hands and feet. The whole body looked like a human, but the skin was

covered with scales like a fish. He neither talked about food nor drink, and he died three days later. This is a kind of bahriyan (22) of

the sea similar to man.

P420

About another race.

It is said that Zanzibar has a mountain called Qalun. Let me talk about this story in the chapter of Nathnasse (23) (a human-like creature).

P426

Know: Every child of the Adam is made up of a mass of water and earth. Whatever the color is black or white.

The influence of (the climate). Even if Slavic people came to the land of Habasha (Ethiopia) and passed several generations, they

will turn black. When Zanju came to the land of Allah and passed several generations, they all turn white. All are Children of Adam.

And Adam, was also from the earth and the water.

About the various groups, Sudan, Hind, Zanju etc.

Well, let's talk about various black people and groups from the burning land after this.

Know: There are several diseases in the province. However, it is rich in medicinal herbs and with medicinal herbs, men will not get

sick, they remain agile and even live longer. As with elephants, peacocks, parakeets, coconuts and various medicinal herbs, anything

on the ground of Hind is all good and surprising. Both women and men are wearing bracelets. ….. There are naked men among them,

and they sell ambergris. Their staple food are mushrooms, and the wine is made from coconuts. They are tall.

P427

One group

Another group called Zanj is depraved and thiefs. Always suffering from scabies, always skin scratching. Children who are just born to

their mothers also have scabies and continue until they die. (32)

P429

Hinde of Zanzibar

Well, most of the Hinde people in Zanzibar live in the wilderness. Like the Turk people, their face is wide and their noses are flat. The

farther you go the more they become timid, the more like a beast.

In the end they live in trees. Some tribes have changed their appearance. They resemble cats.

A tribe in Zanzibar has hair growing like a cow and is afraid of humans. A tribe of them brings the products to the coast, leaving [the

goods] and dives into the ocean. Merchants put their goods or Iron and take the coconuts, agarwood (24), camphor (25), leopard skin, silver and

gold and go back. They take the iron and sulfur and dive in the sea again. Among them, this is a fair deal. Nobody knows what they do

with iron and sulfur, nor how they live in the water. (33)

Part 9 About wonders of birds.

P535

Zanzibar’s Birds

There are birds similar to juzakakebato (fahta) in the border of Zanzibar. The staple food of this bird is a snake. [this birds] [throw away

snakes] [drop from the air] and eat it when the snakes die.

Part10 About the Wonders of Animals

P548

Know. Elephants like apples. It is difficult to capture an elephant when he is excited. However, the little ones are different. Also, if an

elephant collapses he cannot get up anymore and he cannot lie down either. He needs some support when he sleeps. In elephant hunting,

go near the tree where the elephant is used to sleep, digs up its roots and making a hole. An elephant arrives at night and trying to lean

[against the tree; it falls over], he falls into it and dies. People bury the elephant and take out their bones one year later. [The extracted bone]

is called ivory (aj).

P549

……………..The lifespan of an elephant is 400 years. The longer the fangs, the longer they have lived.

Some fangs reach a length of 7 arm’s length, the price is as high as 1000 dinars (38).

For each additional 1 arm’s length, 1000 dinars are added to the price.  When it reaches 11 arm’s length, it becomes an outstanding male (faḥl)

and does not grow any further.

P556

<Ocean cow (al - tawr al - bahri)>

Water cow (8) (gaw – I abi) is a huge animal and it has  strange figure. When born it is red and has spots. After that, the spots disappear, and

the belly turns white. In Zanzibar in the region of Zabay,(17) there is a [water] cow that is [red], has white spots, and has a tail like a gazelle. Meat

of water animals is sour like vinegar. It is as big as a cow and as strong and blows fire out from its two noses in the evening and burns whatever

it approaches. Because [bulls of water] breath out too strong, and because its expiration is too strong, a fire will occur.

P569

<About giraffe (zarrafa)>

Giraffes lives in the Nubian land. Amazing animals with a camel's body and a head of a mountain cow (deer) but no horns, with a cow's hoof, tail and [donkey] teeth, with long front legs and short rear-legs, and knee-less in the hind legs. The skin is spotted and has a beautiful color. The father is a leopard, the mother is a camel (naqa).

<Anecdote>

I heard that a person who came as an envoy to Iraq via Bahrain and Kish (26) said as follows. I saw a giraffe kept by a king, it had two long forelimbs like two pillars, a long neck like a flag [pole], two narrow horns, and with a black tongue out, he was eating the jujube tree (27) (kunar) When it goes to the side of the tree it lowers its head and tears off jujube (27) from the tree. The head and neck are far beyond the height of the tree. Walnut is also eaten that way. In that region, [giraffe] is called gaw-palang.(34)

[Giraffe]

While heading into the garden during walking, it eats something outside the garden without being outside the garden. Its lifespan is short, movement is heavy. Its skin is hard, body armor is made from the skin. Iron cannot pass though. It will die in the place where It was born. There is no way it goes out of the region [it was born].

P570-571

Karkadan (Rhino)

………………..Humad Ibn Fadlan (28) (was send to the Volga Bulgars by the Abbasids in 921) said: I went before a king. I saw three deep bowls like Yemeni onyx (29) in front of him. This is made of rhinoceros horn, he said. In addition, a pelvic girdle is made from the corner, and the kings purchase it at a high price. [Sai] (=Rhino) wanders between the Heath trees (30) and takes away the one on horseback. [Sai] grazes like cows on the island of Balthair (39). Kaku (the horn) is bought and sold at a high price. The reason is that the picture appears when you open the inside [split]. Among them are pictures of humans, lions, birds and fish. If the background color of the corner is white, a black picture will appear, and if the original color of the corner is black, a white picture will appear. In that region, fortune-telling (ḥukm-ha) is performed based on the embossed paintings. There are only a few in. The horns, which are said to be the horns of Sai, are sometimes brought to Iraq, but they belong to Egyptian donkeys.

P576

The father is a leopard, the mother is a lion, and a cheetah (fahd) is born from them. It is the same as with the giraffe the father is a leopard and the mother is a camel.

P578

(about leopards)…... When it copulates with camels, a giraffe is born, and a cheetah is born when it copulates with a lion. When a wolf and a hyena meet, …….

P596

<The bad quality of a cat>

Cats steal. They scratch the leather cloth and rugs and cry loudly. They turn over jugs. When it gets horny, it makes disgraceful sodomy. This [disgusting] drawback it has in common with pigs, donkeys and cats. The people of Zanji also have this drawback. Especially seen among drunks, [their reason] is torn apart and they cannot be stopped by anyone. When cats eat, they check the right and left fearing that someone will rob them. Standing they claw everywhere to ruin.

P605 (5)

<Usspool Fish (al-samak al-Asbwr) and Swallow Fish (parastuj)>

 Usspur fish (Aspwr) and Swallow fish are [like] two kinds of fish. Swallow fish is in the sea of Zanzibar. The sea of Zanzibar has a stench. I swims to Basra from that place. [After that] It gets over all the dangerous waves and returns to the original place. When swallow fish comes to Basra 's river, you cannot find even one [swallow fish] in Zanzibar. Usspool fish appears in Ubulla (31) river only three months out of a year. [Ubura] people know the time when Uspour fish is coming. When they come to Tigris, there is not one left in Zanzibar. When they are in Zanzibar there is not one in the Tigris. In search of good water, moving at a risk.

P614

[Characteristics of snake]

When a pregnant woman puts her foot on the snake's [crawling] trace, she aborts. A snake sleeps on a naked man. When you are wearing clothes, you have to fear them. The snake is afraid of horns of cows and fragrances (may’a) and marjoram (marzanjus). The snake called sunroki (samsa) keeps his eyes on the sun for seven days when his eyes disappear. Then sight returns. A snake appeared on the way from Lei to Armle, killing people and animals. [One day] When biting the Hind man slave, the snake died. The excessive strength of Zanju [and the people of Hind] won against the coldness of snakes.

P632

<Anecdote>

A king tortured a man. He bound the limbs, oiled the buttocks, throw them out into the wilderness and let the ants eat him. In addition, though, it is a saying: They came in as of Zanji and ants. Ibrahim b. Ruwaym said as follows. Between Khorasan (2) and the land of Hind, there are ants as large as dogs of Saluk (in Yemen). There is gold in the ground. The ants are [protecting the gold]. [People] make a hole in the ground because of too much heat, at the sunset, with meat, go out and throw away the meat. While ants are eating it, they look for gold.

(1) saqaliba: the Slaves from Eastern Europe.

(2) Khorasan: Afghanistan + Eastern Iran.

(3) Nabataean: the Arabian borderland that stretched from the Euphrates to the Red Sea.

(4) Maysan: in south-eastern Iraq, bordering Iran.

(5) Repeated twice: p94; p605; The migrating fish at Basra…..  The barastouj …… : these paragraphs are repeated by many authors: Jahiz's Kitab al-Hayawan (869); Ibn al-Fakih al Hamadhani (903); Shah Mardan Ibn Abi al-Khayr: (11th); Mohammad ebn Mahmud ebn Ahmad Tusi (1160); Al-Zamakhshari (d1144); Al-Qazwini(d. 1283); Qadi Ibn Sasri Al-Shafi’I (around 1300); al-Watwat (d1318) ); Rukneddin Ahmed (1420).

(6) parasang: 1 parasangs or farsakhs = 2.8 nautical miles/ about 5km.

(7) Kai Husrou: a legendary king of Persia from the Kayanid dynasty and a character from the Persian Epic of the Kings of Ferdusi.

(8) water cow: a hippo.

(9) Kuh-i Alburz: Koh e Alburz; Kuh i Elburz; Kohe Alborz; Kuh i Alborz is a mountain of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan.

(10) Jaharufuru; Al Jardafun: Cape Guardafui, Ra's Jardafun, Ra's 'Asir.

(11) Sihr; coastal town in Hadhramaut in eastern Yemen.

(12) Multan: located in Punjab, Pakistan.

(13) Tarabulis: Tripolitania the area around the capital of Lybia;

(14) dai dai: is an Asian variety of bitter orange.

(15) Karin: a variety of quince.

(16) Fars: region in Iran.

(17) Zabaju: Zabaj: one of the main islands of Indonesia (Sumatra). P230 and p556 indicate that Zabay (in Indonesia) and Zanzibar are neighboring countries. This is most likely a result from the colonization of Madagascar in previous centuries by people from those islands.

(18) Tihama: refers to the Red Sea coastal plain of the Arabian Peninsula from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Bab el Mandeb.

(19) Jazira: the island; the northern part of Mesopotamia.

(20) Hejaz or Hijaz: the province of Mecca.

(21) Abu Ḥatim Sijistani: (d.869), was an Arab philologist, one of the most prominent representatives of the Basran school.

(22) Bahriyan: (Bahr means sea; so: Being of the Sea)

(23) Nathnasse or Nasnas or Nisnas: (Half humans half animals or jinn found in the neighbourhood of Yemen and in the islands in the Ocean.) See Yakut (1220); Shah Mardan Ibn Abi al-Khayr (11th)

(24) Agarwood or aloeswood, eaglewood or gharuwood is a fragrant dark resinous wood used in incense, perfume, and small carvings.

(25) camphor: is a powder that originally came from the bark and wood of the camphor tree.

(26) Kish; Qish: Kish island is located in the Persian Gulf, 19 km from mainland Iran, and has an area of approximately 91 km2. It was very important in early Abbasid times.

(27) jujube tree: The small round fruits are growing on large flowering shrubs or trees (Ziziphus jujuba originally South Asia).

(28) Humad Ibn Fadlan: known as Ahmad ibn Fadlan, was a 10th-century Arab Muslim traveler, famous for his travels to the king of the Volga Bulgars.

(29) Onyx: refers to the parallel banded variety of the silicate mineral chalcedony.

(30) Heath trees: Erica arborea, the tree heath or tree heather is native to the Mediterranean Basin and Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa.

(31) Ubulla : the port of the town of Basramarjoram (marzanjus).

(32) Scabies in the land of Zanj is found in: Jahiz's Kitab al-Hayawan (869),  Ibn Khordadbeh (886), al Hamadhani (903), Ibn Rosteh (903), Ibn al-Fakih Tha'alibi (1038), Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (1109), Mohammad ebn Mahmud ebn Ahmad Tusi (1160), Ali ibn Zaid al Baihaqi (1170), Jakut al Hamawi (1220), Al-Qazwini Atar al Bilad (1283), Rukneddin Ahmed (1420) and many others.

(33) Those mentioning the silent trade in East Africa on my webpages: Hudud Al-'Alam (982); Al Zuhri : (1137); Mohammad ebn Mahmud ebn Ahmad Tusi (1160); Yakut (or Jakut) al Hamawi (1220); Al-Qazwini(d. 1283) Atar al Bilad; Rukneddin Ahmed (1420); Ibn Al Wardi (about 1456).

(34) repeated among many others: Ibn al-Fakih al Hamadhani (903); Musa Ud-Damiri (d1405); Zad Sparam (9^th); Ibn Bakhtishu (1295); Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (1109); Hassan Bar Bahlul (10^th); Mohammad ebn Mahmud ebn Ahmad Tusi (1160); Jahiz's Kitab al-Hayawan (869); Tha'alibi (d1038); Ibn Manzur (1290);

(35) Salahit= Sofala of India

(36) Qamarun = Kamarupa present day Assam in India.

(37) dirhams: silver coin of the Arab world (3 gr of silver).

(38) Dinars: gold coin of one mithqal (4-5 gr of gold).

(39) Balthair; Rukneddin Ahmed (1420) has Bertayim; Qazwini (1283) has Bertajil; Ahmad Tusi (1160) has Balthair.

The following pictures are taken from: Walters Ms. W.593

---------------------------------------------------------------

The following map is a copy made in Persia for Dr. Kaempfer's Album of Persian Costumes and Animals in 1684