The total of the globe is divided into nine sections: the belt behind the equator to the south and the seven regions on the stages of the climes. Then the ninth section is located beyond these in the north.

The earth’s land behind the equator to the south

It is sixteen degrees wide. The sea, the ocean does not appear from the Far West nor in the south. It has ten parts.

First section

(1)

Is the Sudanese cities of the city of Ku (city of nudes); destitute as beasts who are transported, this is at longitude 10 deg. and latitude 4 deg. And there is Zafun, with longitude 13 deg. and 10 deg. latitude. And other flowing sands and clear roads.

Second section

In it of a kind that was presented at its smallest, where the longitude is twenty-four degrees and the latitude is seven. And at its largest, where the longitude is twenty-seven degrees and the latitude is seven, and it contains the first of the rivers of the Nile descending from the latitude of sixteen degrees from the last of the inhabited places. It is the last of the second part.

Third section:

Since the beginning of this section where the longitude is 36 deg and some min up to 39 deg 20 min longitude and 16 latitude are the sources of the Nile who come after the 5 rivers mentioned in the last part of the second section. These sources start off in the plains. The sources of the 5 other springs are also in the third section but they come out of the Djabal al Qoumr (63) at 48 deg to 52 deg 5 min longitude as to latitude for the 10 springs they are 16 deg. The 5 first rivers go to the first lake, west, with centre at 42 deg longitude and 7 deg latitude diameter 5 deg. Second lake, east, is at 2 deg distance of the first with same latitude and diameter. From each lake leave just as there enter 5 rivers on the north side, only the second and third river become together one river. All reach a big lake with centre in the first clime. In this third section are the towns of the Soudan. Rafla (2) between the two first rivers and at one deg distance of the lake then Koucha (2) at the sources that feet the last river coming from the 2nd lake at 53 deg and 2 deg latitude. Above this place passes the Nile of Maqdachou (3) that comes from north of the equator. The people of Qoumr are between the two lakes and those of Akwan are north, in the direction of Koura (11).

Fourth section

In this section ends the Djabal al-Qoumr according to Ptolemy at 61 deg 50 min longitude (mss London 46 deg / Paris 51 deg 50 min) and lat 11 deg (mss London 16 deg) al Baihaqi and ibn Fatima (28) make them join there the mountain that stretches along the first regions that are inhabited up to Djabal al Nadama (4) ……

The Komr who give their name to the mountain [of this name] are the brothers of the Chinese (5). We quote them and about most of the peoples who inhabit this country, this peculiarity that they eat people who come to them. In this forth section. The Damdam live on the shores of the Nil behind the lands of the Zeng. They invaded Nubia and Abysssinia in the year 617 of the Hegira [1220 AD], at the time when the Mongols invaded Persia. [These Damadams] are the Mongols of the Negroes. This town of Damdama (6) is 54° 20' longitude and by 9° 30' latitude.

 They are careless in their religion. They have idols and religious ceremonies. In their countries there are giraffes. It is in the land of the Damdam that the Nil splits. They live there where Ahmad b. Tulin (7) the Bukna (64) puts. These live behind Alwa (8) and are completely naked like the Zang. It is in their country which produces gold, that the Nil splits in several branches . Out of which the green and the white Nile are born.

Qaljur, (9) near which are iron mines (ma'din hadid fa'iq), source of the material from which the Qaljuriyya swords are made 56deg longitude, 2deg 30min latitude and Berbera, (Qa'idat al Barabar) the capital of the berbers, of which Amou-el-Qis (10) described the slaves and horses. who are considered really good. Most of those people did become Muslim by now. This town is at 68 deg longitude and 6 deg 30 min latitude. The  Nile of Maqdishu from where it leaves lake Koura (11) continues ascending in this section up to 11 deg lat. and 66deg long. then swings round to the east (south) of Barbara from which it is separated by a degree; then curves to the east (south) of Maqdishu.

In this section among the towns of Berbera and after Berbera, which is the capital, one finds on the Indian Ocean shore: Serfouna or Carfouna (or Qarquna/Farfuna) (12), which is placed in a bay at the beginning of that sea, 64 deg 30 min longitude and 0 deg 20 min latitude. More to the east is another town of the Berbers, called Berma, (Barma) (13) also located in a bay at 66 deg longitude and 1 deg latitude. Further to the east is Hafouny (Hafuni, Ras Hafun) (14), a big mountain very well known by travelers. It seems like it goes into the lands towards the south for a distance of 100 miles. At the same time it also goes into the sea for about 140 miles, in a northerly direction, with an inclination to the east. In that part that you can see, there are 7 peaks, the sailors count them and are happy when they are past. Marka (15),  to the east (south) of Hafuni (14), in the celebrated land of Barbara, on the seacoast is   found Marka (15) whose inhabitants are Muslim. It is the Capital of the country of the   Hawiya (16) which contains more than 50 villages on the banks of the river branching   out from the Nil Maqdishu 69 degrees 30 min longitude 1 degrees 10 min North latitude It is placed on the side of a river that comes out of the Nile of Magdachou and has its mouth at 2 marhala (17) to the east of the town. Out of that river comes an arm that forms close to Meurka a sort of gulf. At the east of Meurka is the Muslim town of Magdachou (18)  (madinat al Islam) celebrated in this region whose name Maqdishu occurs frequently on the lips of travelers. It is at 72 degrees longitude, 2 degrees latitude at the Indian Ocean shore, its harbor offers little security in the rainy season.

Fifth Section

At the beginning of this section at 0 deg, 10 min (still of the former section ) and at 2 deg latitude is the mouth of Nil Maqdishu, which flows through the lands that belong to the town with the same name. At about 12 miles from it and then mouths into the sea. Close to Maqdishu it looks like the river is less big then the Nile of Egypt, but it is deep and it lost lots of water on the way, giving birth to other rivers. Ibn Fathima says: This Nile comes from lake Koura (11), situated under the equator, and out of the mountain El-Moquecem (19). This Nile then becomes a twin river to the Nile of Egypt, the bifurcation is at 51 deg longitude and 0 deg 30 min latitude in the first climate to the north of the equator. The river is curving around instead of going strait, other rivers leave it who go and make the surrounding country more rich as happens in Egypt for the sugarcane and the banana and in India for the pepper the m'qeul (the cocoa-tree) the foufeul (palm-tree) and others. The people of the land plant twice a year: once just after the floods of the river, one uses this water to irrigate the terraces, the other, when the rain season has arrived. The river after running for about 2,000 miles mouths at the east of Magdachou. At the eastern side of the Nile ends the land of Berbera (Bilad al Barbariyya) and begins the land of the Zendj. (Bilad az-Zanj).

One finds in this 5th section among the well-known towns of the Zandj Mulanda- Malindi at 81 degrees 30min longitude 2 degrees 50 min latitude. It is situated in a bay west (north) of it is a khor (estuary) of a river (Jabal al-Qamar) coming from the mountains of Comr (22). On its banks are habitations of the Zanj and to the south (west, inland) those of the Qamar. To the east of Malindi is Alkerany (Kharani) (20), a jabal (mountain) known to travelers. This mountain goes into the sea for about 100 miles, in north-east direction and at the same time it goes in strait line into the country in southerly direction for about 50 miles. Among the special things of this mountain is: on the continent side of it is an iron mine producing enough for the whole country of the Zendj as well as for export. The other side, in the sea, is magnetic. One finds at Malindi the tree of the Zandj (or another translation reads: one finds sorcerers) The king of the Zanj lives in Mombasa (Manbasa) a degree from Malindi. Mombasa is on the sea shore. To the west is a gulf that the boats can go up for two days. And which is more than 300 miles long. In this section is also Mafaza (21) the uninhabited stretch between the Zanj and Sofala. (57)

Then we have the towns of Sofala. Banyna (55), (Batina) (Idris Bathana/ at-Tuhnat) at the extremity of a big gulf that goes into the lands up to a distance of 4 deg. from the equator. And of which the opening is 2 deg. longitude. The town is at 87 degrees 10 min longitude 2 degrees 30 min latitude. To the west of  Banyna is Jabal 'Ajrad (55) (or al-Mujarrad) a mountain that goes into the sea, towards the north east, up to 100 miles. The sea here makes a lot of noise, and the mountain sucks to it everything that comes close. Travelers really are very scared of it, and watch out. Banyna (55) has a quite long bay into which comes a river that comes from the mountains of Comr (22), which are in the east. The length of the bay and the river is of one month traveling. Their shores are lined with orchards and crops. The sea, from this city, descends for a month's march to the place where the shore reaches the equator, where the dome of Uzayn (23) is located, which is, on earth, the equivalent of the dome of Libra [of the zodiac]. On all sides of this dome, [there are] 90 degrees.

Sixth Section

In this section are the inhabited regions of the Sofalans that are on the board of the Indian Ocean. And also some of their towns that are not well known; then comes the capital, which is Sayouna (24) at longitude 99 deg and latitude 2 deg 30 min situated on a big gulf where descends a river from the Djabal al-Qoumr west of the town, in an immense bay east of which is a town: the length of the bay, along the equator is 5 and a half deg. In this town lives the king of the Soufalas. These and the Zandj are idolaters and pray to stones which they sprinkle with oil from big fish. Their mean income comes from gold and iron. Their clothes are made of panther skins. Horses don’t live in their country so that their soldiers go on foot. Al Masoudi (65) says that they fight on the back of bulls as the Nuba use camels. East of this town is the canal of al-Qoumr (25) coming from the sea of Hind up to the last inhabited places in the south; it stretches there about 200 miles it keeps going that way making an arc, towards the south east till it touches the Djabal al Nadama (4), talked about later. East of al Sayouna (24) is the mountain al Maltam this one is big and stretches along the coast for about 260 miles, it happens often that ships that got shipwrecked by the north wind are destroyed there, travelers watch out for this mountain, when they pass it towards the east they are saved and when they enter the channel in the south they try to use the south wind to get out so that the water and the wind does not bring them to the Djabal al Nadama (4) which would kill them.

The people of Al-Qoumr are in the south of this section where they are close to the mountain that is called after them. One of the towns in this section, who are on the island of al-Qoumr (26)- an island wide and large and of which it is said 4 months long and 20 some days wide- is Lirana (27). Ibn Fatima (28) says he visited it and that it is from the Muslims as Maqdachou. Its people come of all places. It is a place for loading and off-loading; its nobles who make up the government are under the king of Malay which is to the east of t heir town. Lirana (27) is situated at the shore at 102 deg longitude less some min. and 0 deg 32 min latitude: it is in a big gulf in the river, coming from the mountain situated in the 7th section descending west of the town. At 5 deg distance of it is the town of Malay where the king of the island resides. It is possible that he is a sultan with authority over the whole island or a big part of it but that is not important, because of the big distances and the differences in opinions and parties. This town is on the same latitude as Lirana (27): west is a gulf which is a derivation of the big river which descends to Lirana (27).

Seventh section

In this one ends the continent of the Soudan which stretches from the extreme west up to Djabal al Nadama (4), further on the sea covers all that is to the east, at the longitude of the island of Qoumr. The beginning of Djabal al Nadama (4) is the beginning of this section at 108 deg and a min longitude, it is said that it goes up in the air for three days in height. Its color is a mix of dust and red and it stretches along the limit of the inhabited places at 16 deg lat for about 20 days of these about 14 days along the sea, its end is at 117 deg 30 min longitude. The sea al-Mouhit (29) coming from the south-east reaches its southern part, in the north is the channel of Al-Qoumr. When a boat from the sea of Hind enters this channel the waters and wind pouch it till you see this mountain, one regrets not to have taken precautions and accepts the fatality, then one gets shipwrecked, or one gets behind the mountain after which there is no more news about the ship, and it is unknown what has happened, it is said that there waves that don’t stop turning the ship till it submerges. The travelers on the sea of Hind call this place the sea of destruction and sea of Canopus because when entering Canopus is seen above the heads. Under this mountain, in the channel of al-Qoumr is the town of Daghouta (58) last town of Soufala and last place inhabited on the east coast which goes on till the (surrounding) sea. She is situated at 109 deg longitude and 12 deg latitude in the north there is a gulf where descends a river from the mountain of al Qoumr, it is said it has the same source as the river of Sayouna (24).

Among the towns and islands of al-Qoumr who are the residence of their kings and who are in this seventh section is Daemi at 112deg 30 min longitude and 3 deg latitude. East of this town descends a gulf fed by a big river: this gulf is bend in an arc and the sea enters along the town till it touches close to the equator. At the end of the arc is situated the town of Balbaq also one of the residences of their kings of the island at 118 deg 30 min longitude and 1 deg latitude. In the east is an island that is called after the town, this island is about 2 deg long west to east and wide about 1 deg. In the east of Balbaq is a big river shaped in an arc, this is the river of Lirana (27), it descends from the Djabal al Ouyoun (66) 8 days long on foot from east to west, from its sources descend 5 small rivers up to the bend of that river, then the bent continues up to the sea of Lirana (27) and the sea of Balbaq. East of Balank is Sirandib (30) Island.

[Ibn Sa'id then describes the island of Sirandib (30) which is at 124 ° longitude and 1 ° 30 'and minutes (sic) latitude; cites its capital Aghna, the Mountain of Rahun]. On the arc of the southern sea of Sirandib, he then said, are the famous ghobb or gulfs of Sirandib (30) which go south. They are four in number, deep. In each of them flows one of the rivers of the island of Komr. The western ghobb is in the 7th section; the next one, in the 8th. Then come the third, then the fourth [ghobb], at the same time as the end of the above-mentioned arc.

Eighth Section

The first thing that one meets there among the capitals of the island of Komr, it is the town of Khafura which is by 130 ° of longitude and 1 ° of latitude [southern] on the great gulf, to the east of the gulfs of Sirandib (30). In the northern part [of Khafura], falls the river which descends from the mountain dominating the city of Komoriyya. East of [Khafura] is the capital Dimala, which is on the sea, 143 ° longitude and 0 ° 30 ' latitude. To the east of this [last] city, falls a river which descends from the great river. In this section there are two mountains: one, south of Dimala, from which a long river flows which emerges into the third ghobb; the other, near the middle of the distance between the two capitals. [This one] is close to the South Sea and there are three small rivers that flow into the long river.

Map from G.R. Tibbetts; A Study of the Arabic Texts containing Material on South-East Asia.

Ninth Section

There are towns and inhabited countries that are part of the island of Komr, which are not known. The only city mentioned is the former capital of the island. At times, the ruler of this town ruled most of the island; this capital is Komoriyya . It is 154° long, over a vast gulf that stretches three degrees in length from the equator and about equal width. This town takes its name from the Komr which descend from Amur son of Japheth. The Chinese are related to them by Amur.

[The Komr] lived with the Chinese in the eastern parts of the earth. Discord having arisen between them, the Chinese drove them to the islands and they remained there [in these islands] for a while. The title of their king was Kamrun. Then, the discord arose between them while they were in these islands which we will speak about later. So the people who were not part of the royal family went to this great island and their sultan resided in the city of Komoriyya. Then they increased in number and they swarmed to the capitals mentioned [above]; they split up into small independent kingdoms. Discord then arose between them because they had become numerous. Many of them went to populate the south, at the beginning of the inhabited land, along the mountain that bears their name. The ignorant call this mountain djabal Kamr, putting a falha on the k. (56)

In this large island, the length of which is four months [of walking] and the greatest breadth of twenty days [of walking], there are great rivers, the largest of which is the Khafura river in which the great sea vessels sail with full load, thanks to its depth and width. Its length between its mouth which is at the eastern end of the island, and the place where it flows under Khafura, is about two months [of walking]. On its banks there are great trees, each of which is made [the kind] of ships by which these people are known, and in which there are a hundred rowers. [This kind of ship] is hollow and has a deck on which [can] sit a hundred people. It is mentioned in books and well known by travelers accounts. [The natives] make houses [which rest] on boats with these woods. They connect them with ropes; and when one of them loathes his neighbor, he moves to another neighbor. Likewise, when a fire breaks out in the neighboring house, [the inhabitant of the nearest house] lets go of the ropes [by means of which] his house [is held up] and thus avoids the fire.

We find [in this island] the great bird known as the rokh, which is said to cover a village with shadow [with its wings]. With his claws, he takes small elephants, and gives them to his young as food. With the full part of their feathers, they make bridges to pass over waterways, and with the hollow part, containers for water (60).

There are in this island, oxen dragging the wagons. Each is the size of three oxen from our country. In each of their horns, one can put a thousand mann of oil. Their oil is thick; they use it for lighting. It is supplied by the fat of the large animals which they hunt at sea.

[The natives] have a weed with which they weave the excellent multicolored fabrics that are exported to Iraq and Yemen. We find in the island, bananas, sugar [cane] and coconut. [With the fibers of the coconut tree], they make ship cables with which they consolidate the boards [of the ships]. Their main culture is betel (31), which resembles the vine in that it rolls up and the laurel, by its leaf. They use the leaf with a little bread and water and make a perfume of it, an intoxicating liquor and a drug which gives them pleasure. It is the equivalent of wine for the people of India. [The natives] physically look more like the Chinese than the Indians.

It is the same with their clothes. They worship Buddhas like the people of India and China. Dominating the town of Komoriyya is the mountain which takes its name from it; it rises [to a height] of about three degrees. There are many rivers [flowing] down from it towards the immense river of Khafura. Its eastern part flows [into the sea?] At the end of the island, on the eastern side; the western part [of the river flows] below Khafura. The sea which bathes [the island] lengthwise, from the south side, merges, from the south, with the Surrounding Ocean. It is said that no one enters [into this sea], neither the people of this island, nor those of another country. Those who do so by accident perish in its whirlpools. One travels only in the North Sea of India, and in the two seas on both sides, east and west (sic).

Tenth Section

There is the island of Mudja. Its longitude, from south to north, is twelve days [of walking]. It is located at the beginning of the section. Its width is about two days [of walking]. Its southern end is at the end of the inhabited world. Its city is by 163 ° of longitude and 9 ° of latitude. It is an independent kingdom. It has the island of Mayd to the north. Between them there is a passage half a degree wide. [Mayd Island] is smaller than the previous one. We count it among the islands in the China Sea that we talk about in the books. Around it there are small islands that are called Sun Islands. Its inhabitants are among the most filthy creatures of God. They bring honey and wax to China. There the Indian Sea ends. This merges with the Surrounding Ocean by 164 ° 31 'of longitude and 12 ° 30' of latitude [southern], behind the equator, as Ptolemy said. The town of the Isle of Mayd is in 163 ° and minutes longitude, and 4 ° [southern] latitude. Travelers used to go there; then they diverted their route to go to the island of Djawa of which we have spoken in the first climate. Where the two seas merge is the mouth of the Khumdan [river] which is the largest of the rivers in China. To the east and west of the river, in this section, is the city of Khumdan which is the most famous of China's cities located behind the equator. It is in 168 ° longitude and 1 ° latitude. To its west [of the river] is the city of Katighura which is one of the famous cities of China. Its latitude, behind the equator, is 6 °. Khumdan is two degrees farther than it in longitude [therefore 166 °]. East of this central point [Khumdan], there are inhabited areas and cities in China that are not known.

At the place where the Indian Sea and the Surrounding Ocean merge, starts an arm of the sea that heads south. The boundary between the Indian Sea and the Surrounding Ocean is the great mountain of Clouds. Its summit is still covered by clouds. It is said to be so called because from the Island of the Clouds which lies below this mountain, black clouds emerge [accompanied] by winds which lift the sea and which wreck everything that is found on this sea. This sea, at this place which is part of the end of section 10, is, so to speak, independent of the Indian Sea and the Surrounding Ocean. It is called the Wak Sea (sic). It contains islands, the first of which is Cloud Island. Between its northern part and the equator, there are about 5 degrees. To the south, it has the Antichrist Island, the length of which is oriented to the south. The Wakwak Islands are at the end of the inhabited part of this island on the east side. The limit between the sea which bathes it and the Surrounding Ocean is formed by a mountain with a high summit. It is tall. According to what Masudi reports, there is a tree there which produces a fruit similar to the abrandj and which gives birth to young girls suspended by the hair; each one utters the cry of wak wak. If you cut their hair and pull it off the tree, they die. It is said that there is a lot of gold in these islands. These [Wakwak] islands are surrounded by the Victory Mountains ???? that pounce on people and eat them. None of the neighbors or travelers can enter the islands of this sea and the speeches that are made about its inhabitants and the island of the Antichrist, are to be considered as fairy tales The Creator is great!

Climate I

Its inhabitants are Sudan and its latitude is sixteen degrees and twenty-seven minutes. It has ten parts:

The first part.

The surrounding sea according to what was narrated from Ptolemy, starts where the longitude is 1 degree and the latitude is ten minutes. From there are, al jazayir (the islands), of the immortals in the seas, as drawn in the geography. It will take all of the azimuths from the first region and a little bit of the zenith of the second. From these islands, Ptolemy took measurements as he measured the equator. It is not inhabited, but it was reached by Alexander Zulkarnain and Ram al-Salul who went through its full width, and they were not able to do what they wanted, as for shortcomings and accumulated fog, or for fear of delusion and destruction. Then he placed a lighthouse on each island to guide those who strayed, and wrote on each of them: There is no way behind me. And there is long talk. Ibn Fatima (28) said: And the islands of happiness are between the eternal islands and the wilderness, deserts in the first, second and third regions. They are twenty-four islands.

And to talk about it like myths. And the surrounding sea is slightly rising in this part to reach the mouth of the Nile, which passes over Ghana, is where the longitude is ten degrees and twenty minutes and the latitude is fourteen degrees. In front of the mouth of the Nile in the surrounding sea is the island of Salt, its length from north to south is two degrees and a few degrees, and its latitude is half a degree. At its southern end, on the sea, is the city of Ullil, which is free as cities of the Indians, and it has many types of reeds and plants. Its inhabitants lived from fish and turtles, and their trade in salt, which they bring in boats to the countries on the shores of the Nile. They said, and there is no other navigation in Sudan. And next to this island is the island of amber and between them is a space of half a degree. And between it and the land, it is less than that, and it is two degrees long and three degrees at the top. It is also called Turtle Island, as it has a lot of them. And the people of those countries hunt them and use their meat and travel through it. And they also find on this island a lot of amber. The first thing that you will encounter on the west of the Nile from the cities of Al-Takrur is the city of Qalnbo, a famous presumption that was in the time of Abu Ubaid Al-Bakri for the infidels. As for our time, there is no city on the shore of the Nile from the land of Takrur that Islam has not entered it, and all of it is under the authority of Takrur. Its base is on both sides of the Nile and its name is Takrur, and by that it is known. And their offspring is told its meaning. They are two parts: a section that is urbanized and has inhabited cities and there are men in the countryside. Most of their fields are on the northern side of the Nile, and they have a few in the south, and most of them are areas of nomads and they are destitute infidels who eat people. The centre is the city of Takur, where the longitude is seventeen degrees and the latitude is thirteen degrees and a half and minutes. Its Lord captures a group of slaves of Lamm who are in a valley, and they have according to the books a city like a village called Moyah, and in it the house of their religion, there are idols whose subject is on the surrounding sea where the latitude is six degrees.

Second Section

The first thing that  you meet is Brisa, which is one of the most famous countries of Al-Takrur. And the weakness of the power of Takrur alone, makes the Lord of Brisa to be on his own. The travelers frequent it, and it is the last of Al-Takrur on the north of the Nile, where the longitude is twenty-two degrees and the latitude is three and a half degrees. Most of the clothes in Sudan are skins and others leather. And if one of them was modest, the leather would be tanned. And whoever mixes things and specializes, his clothes are made of wool and cotton, and that is something that is special for him. And most of the food they eat is fat or fermented. And there is no bread except as something special of the kings. Their horses are short and unrivalled. And their weapon are ebony pins, which are abundant on the Nile and from it they are logged, and they have bows and arrows and from the spinal reeds they make their strings. And in their homes there are cotton trees. No one can be built with plaster and pay wages except for the Lord or whoever has permission to do that from the people specialized in luxury. And they walk naked. The Muslims among them cover their people with bones and skins, and the infidels do not cover them. In the east and north of Brisa, the Lamy River flows down from the mountains south of Lamy. And this city is like a village under the obedience of infidels to Lamm. And its people are Jews, who are taken as slaves in the Maghreb. Mount Lamy, which extends from west to east, in eight stages. From its western end, the aforementioned Lamy River flows through their settlements until it is poured into the Nile. From its eastern end, the River Millal emerges and curves until it passes over the city of Millal, which is one of the destitute infidels' cities. And the latitude of the city of Lamy is ten degrees and the longitude is equal of the longitude of Brisa. And the longitude of Millal is twenty-six degrees. Its river flows into the Nile from the top of the city of Dirham, one of the destitute infidels. It is in the middle of the distance between Lamy and Millal to the east of what was mentioned as the al-Haw river, which is one of the rivers mentioned by Ptolemy, and descends from the Mount of Hoe, which extends beyond the equator. And this mountain has its head, where the longitude is thirty-two degrees and the latitude is nine degrees behind the line (equator), so it extends from there until the line is at two degrees and minutes, and from it with the line a division of two degrees emerges from its western head and then turns to the north, then it descends to the Nile, where the longitude is at the city of Millal two and a half degrees. And on the two banks of this river, from its beginner to near its mouth, are the fields of Namnam, and they are the closest to the scholar in lineage, and the liked in their deeds. From its east, on the areas of Mount Samakdi, a large honourable place, it contains drugs and plants from the benefits of those countries, and it houses a people of the destitute infidels of Sudan known as Samakdi, and with them the city of Samakdi is known. It is at the top of this mountain, where the longitude is thirty degrees and the latitude is eight degrees. The city of Ghana on the banks of the Nile is located in that part, where the longitude is twenty-nine degrees and the latitude ten degrees and fifteen minutes. It is here that the Sultan of Ghana, who is a descendant of Hussein bin Ali, may God be pleased with them, is living. And he has (..) a large cave in which his horses are kept, and he is proud of that over the other kings of Sudan. He wages a lot of jihad to the infidels, and thus he knew his home. And in the east of the city of Samakdi, is the island of Al-Tiber (Gold), whose head is Moroccan, where the longitude is thirty-one degrees, and its bright head is at thirty-six and a half degrees. And in the middle of it, where the latitude is at the zenith of Ghana, it is two degrees. On this island, they find a lot of dust shining at night if the excess water becomes less on its sand, and on this island are famous cities, including the city of Samgarh. And on this northern arm at the end of this part is the most famous of what is in this part after Ghana from the cities of Al-Tiber and Haiyaru, which is on a bay emerging from the southern Nile of the island, where the longitude is thirty-four degrees and the latitude is fifteen degrees. On the southern side of the Nile of Ghana, there are areas of the aforementioned development, and on the north, are fields and unused land. They are the Sudan of the country and Islam has spread in them.

.

Third Section (Ibn Said mixes lake Chad with the sources of the Nile; text concerning the sources of the Nile are made big.)

We first meet the Tala mountain, whose southern end is located in Lake Kura,(11) from which the Nile comes out, while at its northern end the Nile of Gana passes at its feet. To the east of this mountain, extends the country of Kawkaw whose name comes from the city where the king of the country resides. The latter is an infidel of the country of the Sudan. The ignorance of the people of Kawkaw is proverbial. The king of Kawkaw waged war against the Muslims of Gana in the west and the Muslims of Kanem in the east. The town of Kawkaw is located on the eastern bank of the river that bears its name at 44 ° longitude and 10 ° 15 'latitude.

The Kawkaw river, which is independent from the Nile, has its source in the mountain of Maquras which is one of the mountains mentioned by Ptolemy. Its northern limit is at 43 ° 35 'longitude, while its latitude exceeds the first climate towards the second. The mountain of Badi, which touches the Kura lake (32) from which the Nile flows out, is contiguous to it. [It is also said that the Kawkaw River is fed by Lake Kura (11) and the Nile of Gana, a large part of which would disappear under this mountain to emerge as the Kawkaw River; this one would pass to the north of the lake, at the zenith of the Nile of Gana and would be lost in the sands and the soft lands of the second climate, on the meridian of the center of the island of gold]. On its edges are the domains of the Kawkaw which are naked and wild. At its western end are the domains of the Bagama who are black Berbers like the Kawkaw.

Between Kawkaw and the town of Badi, to the south of which the Nile of Gana comes out, there are four degrees. This river leaves the lake at a place located at 48 ° longitude. Ibn Fațima (28) said: Its course, from Lake Kura to the Ocean, taking into account its meanders, is about 3. 000 miles.

In this third section is the Kura (11) Lake, from which emerge the Nile of Egypt, the Nile of Magdasu and the Nile of Gana. We have already spoken of the rivers which descend from the two Batina (and which empty into Lake Kura) where it touches the equator. Likewise we have already said that Lake Kura (11) extends above the equator by a little more or a little less than half a degree. Its length is 1,000 miles. Its eastern end is at longitude 51 ° and its western end is the line of the third section. At the beginning it is 9 ° 1/2 wide, then it tapers little by little, as it was designed, to reach in its center an extent of 450 miles. The other end is 360 miles wide.

Ibn Fațima (28) said: I did not know anyone who saw its southern shore. It is however crisscrossed by the boats of the Kanem and their neighbors, people whom we have met on its northern shores. All around live wild peoples, impious and cannibalistic blacks, the most famous of which we will mention.

On the northern shore there are among others the Badi, whose capital bears the name. It is below (to the south) of this city that the Nile of Ghana emerges. Their neighbors to the west are the Gabi. They are the ones who file their teeth. When someone of them dies, they give it to their neighbors to devour it, and their neighbors do the same towards them, South of the lake are the Ankarar and to the east the Kura (11) who gave their name at the lake.

East of the town of Badi, among the Muslim Kanem, we find the town of Gaga, which is the seat of an independent kingdom with towns and dependencies. This kingdom now belongs to the Sultan of Kanem; it stands out for its fertility and the abundance of food. There are peacocks and parrots, guinea fowl and sheep with spotted fleeces that are as large as small donkeys and do not look like our rams. Giraffes are numerous in Gaga country.

To the east of this city, at the corner of the lake, is al - Magza and this is where the arsenal of the Sultan of Kanem is. Often the sultan leaves there with his fleet to raid the land of the infidels, located around the lake; he attacks their boats, killing and taking captives. (Ibn Fatima)(28) says: The position of Gaga City is 48 ° 20’ longitude and 7 ° latitude.

At a corner of the lake, at 51 ° longitude, is Manan, one of the famous towns of Kanem, at 13 ° latitude. To the south - east of this city is located the capital of Kanem, Gimi (62), at 53 ° longitude and 9 ° latitude minus a few minutes. It is the residence of the Sultan of Kanem famous for his pious acts and the holy war he waged against the infidels. This sultan, who is called Muhammad b. Gil, is of the descent of Sayf ibn Di Yazan, The capital of his infidel ancestors, before their conversion to Islam, was the city of Manan. Then his fourth grandfather converted to Islam under the influence of a jurisconsult. Islam then spread to the rest of Kanem country. This sultan has other kingdoms like that of Taguwa, that of Kawar and that of Fezzan. God helped him: his seed and his soldiers multiplied. He receives his clothes from the Tunisian capital. He has legal experts.

On the Gimi (62) meridian, at the end of this section, it owns Nayy, a town which contains its own gardens, a promenade and a pleasure boat. It is on the west bank of the Nile which descends towards Egypt, 40 miles from Gimi (62). The fruits (from these gardens) do not look like ours. Pomegranates and peaches are found in abundance here. They tried to grow sugar cane, but the result was poor. Only the Sultan is concerned about it, as he is concerned about that of the vine and cereals. 

The origin of this Egyptian Nile is in this section; it leaves Kura (11) Lake at 51 ° 30 'longitude and 6 ° latitude. At its exit from the lake is the city of Kura which is in the anthropophagous Sudan. This city is northwest of the Nile, where the mountain al - Muqassim (19) is located which extends from the city to the southeast corner of the lake. At the foot of this mountain also emerges the Nile of Maqdasu, not far from the equatorial line but beyond it, as has been said.

Inside Lake Kura (11) is Luratis Mountain: it is part of the third section. Ptolemy mentioned that it begins at 43 ° longitude and 3 ° 20 'latitude and ends at 38 ° 45' longitude and 1 ° latitude. It is also called the mountain of gold. The Sudan claims that the gold found in areas flooded by the flooding of the Nile comes from deposits on this mountain. Nobody can approach it, so many snakes and dangerous animals abound there. Its shores are teeming with crocodiles and hippos. It is also said that the hippopotamus is not hunted in this lake; but it is hunted in the Nile of Gana and the Nile of the Nuba.

To the east of the mountain of Maquras separating Kanem from Kawkaw, we find the domains of Kanem and Berbers who follow them and who were Islamized by Ibn Gil, sultan of Kanem. They are his slaves and he undertakes raids with them and makes good use of their camels which abound in these regions. 

East of Manan are the domains of the Zagawa who are, for the most part, Muslims obedient to the king of Kanem (al - Kanemi). North of Manan and the Kanem domains come the lands of the Akwar whose famous cities are located in the second climate. They are Muslims obeying the king of Kanem (al - Kanemi).

Reconstruction by Lange Dierk of Lake Koura (=Lake Chad) according to the text of Ibn Said.

Fourth Section

At the beginning of this section, the Nile of Egypt flows during 3 ° in the country of Tubu, which are ungodly Sudan separating Kanem from (country of) Nuba. Then it sinks into the sands at 9 ° latitude. Then, it is claimed, it continues its course underground, making a bend from south to north. It only reappears at a longitude of 58 ° and a few minutes of longitude and 14 ° 15 ’latitude.

To the south-east of this town (Donqoula) (33) are the habitations of the Zandj from among the Nouba….

……Gnbyt lies in the land of the Kazla (34), who are well-known in Habashi and in demand for their beauty. Their region stretches from the equator close to the Zandj and the Habacha up to the southern side of the mountain Mawrts where there are gold and silver mines which provide the inhabitants of Gnbyt and the neighbouring lands with means of existence. It lies in north-eastern direction, at a distance of four days from Gnbyr. ….

In the south east of Kazla (34) is the lake of Hawars; this lake is called after one of the Zandj groups who belong to the Habacha, who are naked and wild. It is said that gold and lead are very common in their land …..

Donqola, qa'idat an Nuba at 58 degrees longitude 14 degrees 15 min latitude.

Nawaba 58 degrees longitude 9 degrees latitude.

Kusha (61), capital of Majalat Zanj an Nuba, Khatt al-istiwa (35), situated behind the equator.

Alwa (8) = capital Soba at 57 degrees longitude 16 degrees latitude

Tajawa; Qa'idat az Zaghawiyyin. Muslims under the control of Kanem at 55 degrees longitude 14 degrees latitude 

Madinat Zaghawa at 54 degrees longitude 11 degrees 30 min latitude.

Among the Abyssinian towns in this 4th section are....

Junbaita at 58 degrees longitude 3 degrees latitude.

Country of the Kazia (read Karla, Karka) (34)

Jabal Mawrus/Mawris

Buhairat al-Hawrus/Hadrus, named after a tribe of Zunuj al Habasha at 62 degrees longitude 2 degrees latitude.

An-Naja'at, to the east of Nil al Habasha, beside the lake at 61 degrees longitude 2 degrees latitude.

Markaza/Markata, on this Nil at 62 degrees longitude 6 degrees latitude.

Bilad Saharta

Kalghur at 63 degrees longitude, 10 degrees latitude.

Bilad al-Khasa, to the north of Saharta between the Nile and the Sea

Samar (Samhar)

Bakhta, east of Kalghur at 65 degrees longitude 12 degrees latitude.

Jabal al Khamahin, west of Bakhta

Bata at 64 degrees 30min longitude, the first place on the Indian Ocean, marking the boundary between Bilad al-Habasha and Bilad al Barbara, and situated just behind Khatt al-Istiwa (35). (Ibn Said says a little bit further on that Bata is situated 2 degrees from the khatt meaning the equator.) (some authors say Bata = Pate )

Baqati/Baqati, north (this is east) of Bata, 100 miles.

Mount Manquba at 65 degrees longitude 8degrees 30 min latitude

Mount Maqurus at 66 degrees longitude 11 degrees latitude

Jazirat Qanbalu (36): Among the islands of this sea mentioned in the books neighboring the coasts of al-Habasha is the island of Qanbalu (36) between it and Baqati are 2 degrees 30 min. Its southern point is on the same parallel (as Baqati), and its length is about the same as its breath, around two degrees. The distances between its north-eastern part and Aden is 4 degrees 30 min. It used to be prosperous but is now derelict. Boats that have been carried off their courses and have need of water and firewood take refuge there. It is recorded that the extremity of Bahr al-Hind, where are located the Abyssinian towns mentioned... situated just a little off the Sawahil, (67) consists of reefs and rocky stretches where the water is shallow as far as Bab al Mandab where none except small boats can sail.

Fifth Section

The first thing that you meet are the Hadramawt mountains, which extend from north to south, have cities that have idle names because they are few and are not frequented by travellers over-land or the owners of boats on the sea. The most famous coastal cities if you search them in the books, are where the length is seventy-two degrees and ten minutes and the width is twelve degrees, and between them are forty miles. Between Lasa and Aden, an extended mountain is crossed, which extends travel on land and its distance over the sea to the north of the city by eighty miles. And to the base of Hadramawt Tarim, which is in the mountains in the north, has ninety miles between them. And in the north of Tarim, one of the cities mentioned in the books, they mentioned it with abundant dates, and between them were about ninety miles. And in the east, sixty miles to Khuzaymah. And in the east, Dhofar, which was the base of the Tababa, was destroyed. It is where the length is seventy-three degrees and the width is fifteen degrees.

Then you will meet on the coast from the cities of Shihr, which is the country of amber and frankincense, the city of Mirbat, and it is on a creek entering from the north, this city is seventy-four degrees long and fourteen and a half degrees wide. And in its east, the aforementioned creek has the modernized Dhofar, and it is now the ruler of the land of Shihr and its famous products, to which the Arab horses are brought and from there they are carried to the countries of India. Its owner, Ibn al-Nahuh, collects taxes.

It is said that in the land of this city there are many Indian drugs such as coconut, tannebil, betel (31) and grapes, which are like melons in which there are different flavors. And the wilderness between it and Qalhat does not walk from the desert and ordinary tigers. And this great joun is called John the hashish, as he enters the land from the sea border about a hundred miles and extends from west to east about three hundred miles, and boats do not leave it except by the land wind, and travelers from India to Aden are often warned to fall into it. And in the north of this Jonah Al Ahgaf sands. It is said that in the land of this city there are many Indian drugs such as coconut, tannebil, betel (31) and grapes, which are like watermelon and have different flavors. And the wilderness between it and Qalhat is not empty from desert and ordinary tigers. And this great creek is called creek of hashish, as it enters the land from the edge of the sea about a hundred miles and extends from west to east about three hundred miles, boats do not leave it except by the winds from the land, and travelers from India to Aden are often warned of falling into it. And in the north of this creek of Al Ahgaf sands.

And there is the tomb of Hud, peace be upon him. In the north of these sands and cities are the frankincense mountains extending from west to east, and there is no famous city in it. Rather, its inhabitants are foul people like beasts in their images and speeches, and to them the camels are attributed who are feed with mall fish coming out of their sea, they are called weasels. Inside this part, two by two, there are two islands, and the first is the eastern one, and it contains people who speak the language of Ad. And in the south of it is Socotra, which is a famous island, to which the favourite Socotra al Sabre belongs. It is deviating from south to north, bright and its length is about one hundred and eighty miles. And between it and between Ahqaf about two hundred miles, its inhabitants are Christians from the remnants of Greece who travel at sea on boats, and there is a spring of water that is said to increase the mind.

At the end of the Gulf of Herbe (South Arabia) , to the east, is the great and high mountain called in the books: Ras al- Djumdjuma (37); we also call him the Gulf of the Moon.  At this cape come the ships of Mogadiso. It is the place of arrival of ships (coming from Mogadiso) and elsewhere. It is said that there is a white mountain, circular, shaped as the moon at the foot of this great mountain (Note: the mountains of the Moon in South Arabia are very well known). This gulf makes the mountain penetrate in the sea for about 100 miles and it extends as long all over the continent. At the top of this mountain are two points which made the sailors gave it the name of Mountain with Two Horns. After this mountain that lies in the east of the western island, there is no longer any inhabited country or place known until we reach the beginning of Oman whose current capital is Kalhat. It is at 79 ° 60' (sic) longitude and ?? latitude.

At the end of the first climate is a sea were are situated the islands of Mend (Djezair-el Mend or Jaza'ir al Hind/Mand) (38) which are known for the big amounts of coconuts that are found there. The most special is called the island of Kiloua (39), a name given by sailors. The islands are many, and Ptolemy spoke a lot of it under the name Mend. The Mend (38) people are from the same race as those of India and Send (40), but way less known then their racial brothers. Ibn Fathima says that they were beaten by the Zendj, and pushed a lot of them back to Send (40), and that the ones of Mend that remained on the islands remained there as rayas (41). There are in the island of Kiloua (39) three towns mentioned in the books, all three on the boards of rivers. The first has the same name as the island, it is the residence of the chief of the islands, and the place where boats go for trade. It is situated in the south-western part of the island at 84 deg 50 min longitude and 7degrees 55min latitude. In the south-eastern part is the town of Mend (38), and in the north-west the town of Kenk.

The circumference of the island is 1,400 miles. It is shaped nearly like a square in which are cut out several well closed bays.

In the west are the small islands of which the names are for the biggest part unknown, but among which are situated in the west of the group the island Cotria (42). The size of the island west to east is 160 miles, its length about 60 miles. Its people are a plague on the route to India and the Persian Gulf, they take advantage of their position to stop the boats passing by. From the part of the Indian Ocean where these Islands are to the island of Kiloua (39) is one madjra (43) and a third by boat.

In the south is the Island of the Monkeys (Djeziret-el-Qeroud)(42)(44) round in form, with lots of mountains and forests. The monkeys have taken it over. The circumference of the island is about 660 miles. It is situated in south west direction from the island of Kiloua (39) and at a distance on the Indian Ocean of about two madjra (43).

At the feet of the island of Kiloua (39) is the island of Kermouah (kermouh)(42)(45), about 330 miles round. Its people are black pirates. In the east is the island of the Vulcan (Djeziret-el-Beukan)(42) were there is a mountain that constantly spits out fire during the night, and from which there is constant smoke in daytime. Its people are the Zendj, around it is about 300 miles.

Among the islands that depend of Kiloua (39), are the islands Ranehh (46), well known among sailors. The most important among them is Serira, of which the length, north to south, is 400 miles, and 460 miles wide. It has nearly closed in bays. Its capital also called Serira (42) is placed in the center of the island; a gulf from the sea gets close to it. And the town is on the bank of a river that flows into that gulf. Its longitude is 88 deg 30 min, latitude 3 deg 40 min. On the island are other towns of which we do not know the names.

Among the islands of Ranehh (46), we still have the island of Anfoudja (42)(47), (=Unguja; but not the one of Zanzibar) of which the ruler is quiet rich, as well as many people through which he most of the time is able to command the whole archipelago. His family rules the other island of Ranehh.(46)

On the southern part of this island is the town of Khablia (or Djeblia) (48). The prime food of these island is the bananas. The island of Anfoudja (42)(47) is about 170 miles long and nearly 90 miles large. The channel that separates it from Serira (42) is half a madjra (43) wide. In the south and east of Serira (42) are a big amount of small islands who form part of the archipelago of Ranehh (46). Most of them are inhabited by blacks. Only some of them are part of this 5th section of which the end corresponds with Qubbat Arin (49) for Qubbat Uzain at 90 degrees longitude (the geographical center of the earth) of which we already talked..........

Note: the way Ibn Said puts it here Kilwa  is situated among the Dibajat islands (Laccadive).

Sixth section

6th section of the first climate. It is entirely occupied by the sea. There are many Diyab islands. The largest is that of ???? which is so called by travelers. Its principal town is ????, in longitude 92° and latitude 15° 20 '. The length of this island, from west to east, is 220 miles and its width is about 140 miles. The inhabitants of these islands are mostly of Arab tribes of unknown origin, they are Muslims. Travelers to India stop at their homes and trade in sugar cane with them most of their sugar cane is black (sic). Among these islands, there are some which are part of the second climate, as well as the greater part of the big island. Between them and the coast of Sind, there are has about a day and a half of navigation.

Seventh Section

7th section of the first climate. The greater part is occupied by the sea. There are the Coco Islands which are part of the government of Sirandib (30). They are many. Among them, the only one mentioned in books is the island of Balank. It has already been mentioned below the line, as has been mentioned for the island of Sirandib (30) that it is crossed by the equator. On the coast north of this section, among the cities of India famous among travelers, is that of Somanat (68). It is part of Guzerate which is also known as the Land of Lar. Sumanat is located in an area which has access to the sea, where a large number of ships coming from Aden come to board. Now, it is not on a gulf, but it has an estuary which descends from the great mountain to the northeast of the city. Its location is 120 ° longitude and 15° latitude. At its western part, corresponding with the end of the first climate, on the same parallel (sic) is the city of Tana, which is the last city of Lar. It is famous among merchants. The inhabitants of this Indian coast are all infidels who worship the Buddhas. Muslims live with them; ships of Muslims come to them. That of their idols which is the object of the greatest veneration is that of Sumanat. It is highly esteemed by Indians who go there from all parts [of India]. Above the idol is a white construction that appears from afar to ships on the sea. What grows the most in Lar's country is Brazilian wood. They export the lacquer which is the resin from their trees.

Eight Section

8th section of the first climate. The first of the famous cities of the [land of] Pepper which occurs at the beginning of this climate, by 15 ° latitude, in the country of Malayabar, is the city of Saymur. It is on a gulf. There is an estuary in the west of the city. The southernmost one [of the cities of Pepper Country], the most famous among sailors, is Fakanur. It lies on the ????? estuary, which is to its east. Its location is 129 ° longitude and 13 ° minus 2' latitude. On its parallel, in the direction of latitude, is Mangarur. Between these two cities, there are two degrees of longitude (sic). It has an estuary to the west. About two days at sea from Mangarur is Fal through which ships pass. Because if they take this road, they go astray (sic) and they find the right road only thanks to the assistance of God. [In this region,] are mountains and reefs in the sea. The road in the middle of these islands is 1 to 50 miles (?). The end of this sea is constricted and there is no way out of it. The stories we tell about them are (????illegible). It [the sea] runs from the parallel of this city to that of Sindabur which will be discussed in the secund climat. East (sic) of Mangarur, in an area reached by ships, is Kulam. It is the last famous [city] of the [land of] Pepper. There is a lot of ginger that gets its name from it. She is located at 134 ° longitude and 12 ° latitude. They go [from Kulam] to Aden. From there to the island of Silan, there are two days of sea. This island is long and wide. Ibn Fatima (28) said: Its exact dimension is said to be 600 miles long and about as wide. Its circumference is nearly 2,000 miles. There are reefs in the sea and unknown cities. The name that we find mentioned about him in the books, is Ar-Raman whose [the island of Silan] once bore the last name. The name by which it is famous among travelers is Silan, which gives its name to the aloe [called] silani. There are none in Fal. It is located at 139 ° 20 ' longitude and 7 ° 30' latitude. Each of the two towns [sic) is on an estuary that descends from a mountain which is in its northwest corner. Between them there are 250 miles. In this island is the rhinoceros. On its edges are found naked people who jump on the trees, they are so light; Ptolemy calls it the Island of the Naked People. To the south are the Langabalus Islands, which number more than three. Its inhabitants are black, ugly and naked; they attack travelers. There are cannibals among them. They touch the equator. The width of the sea between [the Langabalus] and the island of Sïlan is about two days. 

Ninth Section

9th section of the first climate. The first of the islands of India to come into view is Nakwara Island, which is one of the islands famous among travelers. Its length is about 100 miles and its width 50 miles. Between her and the mainland where the land of Barkala is located there is about half a day at sea. Between her [Nakwara] and the beginning of this section there is a degree. South of this island is Andaman Island. Between them, there are about two days at sea; they are of the same area. The elephant is everywhere there. They stock up on ivory. In the east of these two islands, penetrating from the west from the second climate, there are two towns [of the country] of Larman, on a gulf of the sea. The gulf between these two cities is at 149 ° of longitude. To the south-east are the Maharaja Islands. They are numerous and they talk about them in books. There is excellent gold there. Their ruler is among the richest kings of India and is the one who owns the most elephants. The largest of the islands in this archipelago which contains the city of Maharaja, is 200 miles long and about 100 miles wide. The city is located on its western side and is at 151 ° longitude and 12 ° 30' latitude. To the east of the city, there is an estuary which comes from the mountain which is to the north. It is said that this king's palace is located on a vast canal, the bottom of which he lined with silver. He closed it at both ends so that what is deposited in it cannot come out. Since they have ruled these islands, the custom of each of the kings of this dynasty is to throw a brick of gold every year [into the channel]. After the death [of the king], they count the bricks and they know [thus] the duration of his reign. One of the bricks is put back [in the canal] and the rest are distributed to the soldiers, in honor of the new king. The single bricks [each representing a reign] are put on one side, and the bricks [annuals put into the channel by the reigning ruler,] are put on the other side. When we want to indicate how many of their kings reigned, we count the isolated bricks [which each represent a reign]. We know what is the length of reign of the reigning king by means of a rod. We do not take it out of its place, because it is in a place exposed to the rising sun; and, in the morning, this gold shines in the middle of the water. We find corundum, emeralds, large pearls of which he [the Maharaja] disputes the possession of other kings and of which he is proud. This place is [the king's] treasury of riches. It is said, without proving it, that this island was taken from one race to pass to another. For this, they show pride to their neighbors. The title of Maharaja is a nickname that [kings] pass on to each other.

South of the Maharaja Islands is the large, famous Djawa Island where ships go because of the many Indian drugs found there and because its people are well known for their treatment of travelers. Its western end is at 144 ° longitude and in that [western] corner, among its towns, is the one that is famous among travelers, Lamuri. The latter is in 5 ° latitude. In the south of the island, in the southwest corner, is the town of Fancur which gives its name to the camphor [called] fancuri. It is on the same meridian as the other [Lamuri] with regard to its longitude. Its latitude is 30 '. The Camphor Mountains stretch from the town [of Fancur] to just about the end of the island, west to east. In the middle of the island [of Djawa], on the mountains of Camphor, is its capital, the city of Djawa. There lies the king of this island and of the islands which surround it and which are attached [to the island of Djawa]. From this city derives its name the aloe [called] djawi; it is black, heavy, plunges into the water as if it were a stone. They say that aloe is the root of the tree. This town (of Djawa) is east by 149° 20 ' longitude and 3 ° latitude. In the southeast corner is the city of Kalah well known to travelers. She gave her name to the excellent, malleable and soft [tin called] kalahi. They say they manufacture ????? There is no such thing in the Indian Sea. This city is located at 154 ° 12 'longitude. On the north-eastern side is the well-known town of Malayur. It is a place of docking and anchoring. Its longitude is about the same as that of Kalah; and its latitude, that of Lamuri. Each of the towns on this island that we have spoken of is located on an estuary. The length of this island is approximately 800 miles. To the right and to the left stretch two capes between which the sea is two miles wide. The sea is not deep there. This place is called Bintan. There are small islands there from which come out black pirates [who are armed] with poisoned arrows, [and who have] armed ships at war; they rob people but don't kidnap them. It happens that there are people with them (sic) who take prisoners. A trustworthy traveler says: We had two ships; in one were the goods, and we were in the other. Allah drove us safely to China, the one in which we were with the others. He said: I saw there a white hermitage in which there was a man performing the rites of mourning (?) And who spoke to us (?) from the main land. I was surprised to find him there among these infidels. When the travelers leave Bintan, they give each other the good news [of the arrival] safe and sound. Whoever is about to reach Bintan, meets the Kamrun Islands. The largest is the one where the king lives. It is located east of the Djawa Islands. The city's name, Kamrun, is [also] the hereditary title of the king. We have already given his genealogy when speaking of the island of Komr. This island is at 158 ° longitude and 6° latitude. [Among the islands which belong to the king of Kamrun,] there are many small ones to the west. The length of the largest is about 400 miles and its width of about 100 miles. West [of Kamrun] there are small islands that are part of Djawa, where we find Indian drugs and kala’i lead (= tin). Among these islands is the island of the Volcano (59), which is like the one discussed previously. Among these islands, is that of Mahuk from which one does not reach the interior (?). After the northern islands of Kamrun, lie the Camphor Mountains, the number of which cannot be counted. They extend into the sea through which ships travel to China. They belong to Kamrun, but they were conquered by the Chinese, or rather the Chinese conquered the part [of these mountains] which borders their own shore. There are [in these mountains] trees among which some [camphor trees] resemble willows in leaves; but they can shelter a hundred men under their shadow. The resin (of these trees) is camphor. We say that when the natives cut the tree, pieces of camphor flow from it; the tree then dies. Someone who has traveled between these mountains said: I saw him in the night like stars; the sky was lighted by it. I asked for information [on this clarity] and I was told: In each of these mountains there is a temple which has followers there who worship Allah (sic); they come there at night with lamps to pray there.

Tenth Section

10th section of the first climate. The first thing that we encounter in this section are the islands of China. The first, on the shore side of China which is in the north direction, is Cundur-Fulat; it is one of the islands mentioned in the books. Between this island and the shore of China there are less than two days at sea. It is about 200 miles long. Its widest part is its northern end which is about 130 miles. South of Cundur-Fulat lies the island of Campa which is famous in books and from which the best aloe takes its name. It is said to be [tender and imprinted] like the wax with which letters are sealed. It is white; the kings of China do not leave it to others (than to them). The length of this island, from west to east, is about 100 miles; its width is less. The city of Campa is by longitude 162 ° and minutes, and 6 ° latitude. To the west of this island is Khmer Island which gives its name to the aloe (called) kamari. It is inferior to the Campa aloe but superior to all the others. The width of the sea between these two (islands) is less than a day's navigation. It [the Khmer] is roughly the same length and width as the Campa. The city of Khmer is 166 ° longitude and 2 ° latitude. East of these three islands [Khmer, Campa and Cundur-fulat] lie the small islands of China. They are many ; they extend from the north to the end of the inhabited land in the south. The Indian Sea which is known as the Green Sea, ends to the east of these islands. At this point, the longitude is 167 ° 30 '. There is between this Green Sea and the Surrounding Black Ocean, a land to the west of which one passes, when one is east of the Khumdan river. It is the most considerable of the great rivers and those with the most water in the world. There is none in China longer or wider. It takes its source in the great mountain which serves as a boundary between the Chinese and the Turks and which merges with the dividing line of the III and IV climate. Its mouth is where the Indian Sea merges with the Surrounding Ocean, at the end of the inhabited land in the south. The length of its course is about 3,000 miles. It waters a considerable number of cities. That of the famous cities of China which is on its edges in this 10th section is the city of Kancu. It is in 169 ° longitude and 11 ° latitude. To the south-east of this city, there is still the city of Susiyya. Between these two towns, there are sixteen days of walking. They have roughly the same latitude, but Susiyya is a little further east, by 2 ° latitude. Among the rivers of China which flow into the Surrounding Ocean, which is east of Khumdan, there are three major rivers. In the Surrounding Ocean, at the end of this section are the islands of Sila which serve as a counterpart to the Fortune Islands in the Surrounding [western] Ocean, (in the sense that) there is has no inhabited land beyond; but she [Sila] is inhabited. There are cultivated land and orchards. The last of the (Sila) islands on the east side is Cankhay Island where the statues are located which show: There is no road after me. Its eastern end is at 180 ° longitude.

South of these islands (from Sila) is the Isle of Silver mentioned by Ptolemy, who also mentioned his river. It is said that its soil is rich in silver. By his side, at the end of the country inhabited in the east, is the island of Corundum, which is surrounded by a large mountain mentioned by Ptolemy. It is said to be similar to the mountain of Rahun which is found in Sirandib. There are different kinds of corundum. That's the end of this section, on the equator.

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Although this is a copy of the Djoughrafiya of Ibn Said (according to some); some parts are different. As it has never been published I do not have the text except for the extracts found. Ibn Said: Oxford Bodleian Library, MS Laud. Or 317 (from 1570). More recent commentators do not give Ibn Said as the author (see under).

We shall now describe the parts (ajza) of the Earth. They are seven ... The seventh part comprises the countries of the Blacks (bilad as-sudan).

... The southern hemisphere is an uninhabited desert. The only men who go thither are the Nuba and the Ḥabasha. Living on the Equator as they are, they are very near that land. They enter those deserts as far as twenty farsakhs (50) beyond the Equator, not more. Sometimes they reach the first of the lakes from which the Nile rises; we mean the two lakes formed by the streams descending from Jabal al-Qamar. It is called this way because of the different colors it takes as the moon grows. In the first day of the month it is shining white, in the second night there is even more white, in the third night it is surrounded by a yellow light, in the fourth night this is even more as well as in the 4th and 5th night and it develops a reddish color and a light like fire. In the 7th it becomes green and with lots of light. This light becomes always brighter till the 15th when there is full moon, the mountain then resembles the tail of a peacock and is everywhere visible for the Nuba and Habacha because of its excessive light. From the mountain leave many springs that gather in a lake. According to al…. (unreadable) this mountain gives birth to the big Nile who advances towards the equator... The total length of the Nile, from its source on the Jabal al-Qamar to its mouth in the Sea of the Rum, is 1,045 farsakhs (50)

The first section includes the Nuba, the Zanj and the Ardakan (51) Mountains. In the Nuba country (bilad an-Nuba) lies the town of Marwa (52), their capital. This (the Nuba) is the first people one encounters as one comes from the region of Jabal al-Qamar downstream the Nile. Then the Nile enters the Ardakan Mountains and the territories of the Zanj until it ends in the Great [Mediterranean] Sea. It is in this section that the [Environing] Sea ends and becomes a large gulf (khalij), while the extreme limit of the sea completes the spherical form of the Earth.

The Ardakan (51) Mountains rise between the territory of the Nuba and the territory of the Zanj. It is said that from these mountains comes the raw material to manufacture the vases in which the [poison of the] zumurruda is collected. Between these mountains and these of the Nuba territory are the statues (aṣnam, idols) mentioned by al-Mas’udi in his Kitab at-tanbih wa-l-ishraf. In this region the Nuba collect gold in the Tuta Mountains, also called the Gold Mountains, which are very high... Nobody can see these Zanj without becoming blind; they live beyond the Ardakan (51) Mountains, along the Nile. Only the Nuba, the Ḥabasha and the Janawa can enter that country where they take their merchandise, especially salt, which the Zanj prize very highly.

(When describing the countries of the Maghreb)

It is in these countries (south of the Maghreb) also that we find the giraffe, a long-necked animal with very long front legs and short hind legs; it is the product of the union of the camel and the hyena; its size is that of a big calf. We have already talked about it.

These countries are crossed by the Nile, which then descends into Egypt, and the banks are inhabited by many Negro peoples whose number only God knows. They cultivate the beans and the seed ... known in Rum (Rome) under the name of Bendj and among the Arabs under that of Dora (Sorghum).

As for the tribes situated beyond the Nile in the direction of the east, they are the Abyssinians; in the direction of the west, they are the Nubians, the Zendj and Djenawa (53). We have already said something about this region; let's add a word about the particularities of the people who live there, for example ...,

People, says Macoudi, who live little beyond the equator and have seen the merchants and travelers who have penetrated until then, are blacker, more ugly and with shorter hair than any other; they are also more wicked than their peers who live in the south (sic) of the Ecuador. Most wear no clothes and all, men and women, go naked; they are cannibals, and when they take their enemies prisoner they sell them to the merchants who export them. By their savage manners they resemble ferocious beasts and lions, devouring men as hungry beasts do. If one brings some of their leaders, he keeps the same habit with us, despite the prohibition made and after he has fed on the same food as we; this persistence in anthropophagy is due to their character of ferocious beasts. Among them there are groups of women living in one island while men live in another, without meeting in any other way than in March, when men go to the island of women. They then have sex with them all month, after which they return to their own Isle, and they always do the same.

Taken from: L’Afrique dans les mappemondes circulaires Arabes Médiévales. Jean Charles Ducène (2011)

The world map from the Kitab al bad wal ta’rih (Oxford, ms Laud Or. 317)

This map is found in a manuscript that gathers several texts copied in 1570 under the title of Kitab al bad wal ta’rih, in which one finds geographical passages of the Ihwan al Safa and an abbreviation of the treaty of al Zuhri. The map is not connected to the treaties. It is introduced by a notice that pretends that it is from al-Sarahsi and al Kindi. The toponyms show in reality that it dates from the XVI century. ……….. The cape in the south of the (African) continent is the tarf al raga being the Cape of Good Hope (1497)….. On the east coast we find the classical toponyms; Aydab, al Habasa, Barbar, Nagaga, al Zang, Sufala, Baruna, Kanbala, al Sawahil, F.ruga, Malg.rda and Kilw. At this end, the continent is split by the bahr al habasa on which we find a toponomy going back in part to al Idrisi: Dagdaga, Daguta, Gayuna (=Sayuna?) (23) and Bani Kangu. On the Atlantic coast we find tarf al raga and ard al sahir(?)In the interior of the continent the sources of the Nile are drawn. ………..

A table to prove that this is not a book of Ibn Said but a copy from al Zuhri's work.

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(1) Instead of a collection of paragraphs that contain material about East Africa I here translated everything in that part of the manuscript in which the paragraphs concerning East Africa occur. Those then are in bigger script then the other paragraphs. I also did not make explanation notes for the paragraphs in small print.  For Abyssinia I only give a list of towns, but in big script. 

(2) Rafla, Koucha: these places are unknown.

(3) Nile of Maqdachou; Nile of Mogadishu: This is the Shabelle River begins in the highlands of Ethiopia, and then flows southeast into Somalia towards Mogadishu. Near Mogadishu, it turns sharply southwest, where it follows the coast. Below Mogadishu, the river becomes seasonal.

Al Zuhri : (1137) Makes the people divert themselves the Nile into a branch to the sea of Yemen; In Dimashqi (1325) it is called the river of Damadim; and he is the only one who kind of understands the river-system in South-Somalia. Salamanca translator (1420): calls it yellow Nile. Ibn Khaldun (1406) says it has nothing to do with the Nile. Nile of Mogadishu appears in Ibn Said al Maghribi (1250); Cowar el-aqalim (1347); Abulfida (1331); al Maqrizi (1441)he calls it River of the Damadim ; Hafiz I Abru (1420); Qoutb al-Din al-Chirazi (1311); Al Qalqashandi (d1418); Qadi Ibn Sasri Al-Shafi’I (1300) Cowar el-aqalim (1347).

(4) Djabal al Nadama: literally mountain of regret.

(5) The Komr who give their name to the mountain [of this name] are the brothers of the Chinese: The people of Komr settled on Madagascar and seemingly also on the East African coast. There are some indications of this also with Idrisi (1150): Sayuna, (a settlement at the mouth of the Zambezi?) is medium in size and its inhabitants are a collection of people of Hind, Zunuj (Zanj) and others.

(6) Dendemes, Dendemeh; Dandama: East African people living in the interior, close to the sources of the Nile; also mentioned by Al Masudi (916); Al Idrisi (1150); Ibn Said (1250); Ibn al Jawzi (1257); Harrani (1300); Qadi Ibn Sasri Al-Shafi’I (1300); Al-Dimashqi (1325); Abulfida (1331); Nuwayri (1333); Cowar el-aqalim (1347); Said Abd al Aziz al Dairini (d1385); Ibn Khaldun (1406); Al Qalqashandi (d1418) and Ibn al Wardi (1456) speaks about Demadam; al Himyari (1461).

(7) Ahmad b. Tulin: was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria between 868 and 905. Originally a Turkic slave-soldier.

(8) land of Alwa: northeast of the merging of the White Nile and the Bleu Nile; was a medieval kingdom in what is now central and southern Sudan. Found in Al Khwarizmi (847); Suhrab (945); Ibn al-Fakih al Hamadhani (903); al-Zayyat (1058); Idrisi (1150); Wasif Shah (1209); Ibn Said (1250); Al-Dimashqi (1325); Ibn al-Dawadari (1335); Ibn Abd’essalam al-Menoufi (15^th).

(9) Qaljur; Qalgur in Ethiopia.

(10) Amou-el-Qis described the slaves and horses: On this see my webpage: Imru’u-l-Qays: Diwan of Imru’u-l-Qays (6th century).

(11) lake Koura; Kura: Ibn Said mixes up the third lake at the sources of the Nile with lake Chad. From which emerge the Nile of Egypt, the Nile of Magdasu and the Nile of Gana (according to Ibn Said).

(12) Serfouna or Carfouna (or Qarquna/Farfuna)

Carfouna: Guardafui (according to Jaubert)

Charles Guillain has: The mountain: Djabal-Yerd’foun is resembling Carfouna if you look at the ways it is written in the different manuscripts: Carcouna and Serfouna and Yerd’foun. He proposes Carfouna and Khafouni = Yerd’foun and Hhafoun. (Ibn Said 1250: Hafouny) (Masudi 916: Jafonni or Djafouna) (Abulfida 1331: Khafouni); (Qadi Ibn Sasri Al-Shafi’I 1300: Kerkouna).

Khakoui, (Ras Hafun) who has seven peaks: the seven peaks on the mountain on the peninsula of Hafun still have different names (Charles Guillain p203)

(13) Berma or Barma: Idris has Terma; Termeh: Ras Terma is also known as Ras Beilul, Ras Darma, Eritrea. Here there is confusion as it is situated towards the Red Sea from Carfouna while all other places that are mentioned after are further south the African coast. See Charles Guillain p 192. Ibn Said (1250) and Abulfida (1331) and al-Idrisi (1192); Al Idrisi Ouns al Moubhadj (1192) writes Berma or Barma (Charles Guillain p 238) (Marcel Devic p 57)

(14) Hafouny (Hafuni, Ras Hafun) ; a promontory in the northeaster Bari region of Somalia.

(15) Marka: Merca; Meurka; Present-day Merca is a harbour on the coast of south Somalia. There is indeed a river the Shabelle. Here placed way to far north; identification unsure.

(16) Hawiya: In south Somalia mentioned by Ibn Said (1250); Ahmad ibn Al Harrani (1300); Al Idris Ouns al Moubhadj (1192); Idrisi (1150) has El Hadye; Abulfida (1331) Haouiya; Dimashqi (1325) Hawiah; Al Wardi (1456) Haouina.

The reference in Al-Idrisi (1150) to the Hadiye and in Ibn Sa’id (1250) to the Hawiye, on both occasions associated with the Benadir port of Merca, where the Hawiya live today, suggests that they have been in this area for at least 700 years. The references slightly later in the Futuh al-Habasha to Somali groups in north-western Somaliland indicates that the population in this area has also remained substantially unchanged since the sixteenth century, when the work was written. The Galla another group from the Horn has been living there at least since the 15^th century as Fra Mauro (1459) mentions a Galla River in Ethiopia.

(17) Marhala: literally stage; (day trip)

(18) Magdachou  Maqdishu: Mogadishu.

(19) mountain El-Moquecem; Muqassim: literally the dividing mountain. A lso found in Ibn Al Wardi (1348); Hafiz I Abru (1420); Ibn Said al Maghribi (1250); Al Idris ; Ouns al Moubhadj (1192)

(20) Magnetic Mountain: Idrisi (1150) has mountain Adjoud which attracts ships: Marcel Devic p 76 prefers Adjarrad because that means in arab: screaming (because of the waves hitting the mountain). Other authors who have a magnetic mountain:

Ibn Said (1250) Alkerany mountain magnetic.

Nasir Al Din Al Tousi (1274) Kvhast (mountain) magnet in the sea of Zanzibar.

Alf layla wa layla (15th cent) the Magnet Mountain (where the Ruc bird lives).

Abulfida (1331) al-Kerany (magnetic mountain).

Some authors conclude from this: Nasir Al Din Al Tousi (1274): Therefore ships here are stitched with cord no nails in the ship.

(21) Mafaza: In this section is also Mafaza the uninhabited stretch between the Zanj and Sofala.: In the geography of Idrisi (1150) we have: Mafisa is on the sea shore opposite the mouth of a great river up which it is possible to sail for two days. (like Mafia opposite the Rufiji). (In fact the part left our in Idrisi's book is from Dar es Salaam up to Mozambique Island.)

(22) mountains of Comr = Djabal al-Qoumr = Mountain of the Moon

(23) dome of Uzayn; Qubbat Arin for Qubbat Uzain: = Djezir Arin derived from qubbat uzain; qubbat al ard: dome of the earth. Mythical island being the belly button of the earth. Found in Al-Dimashqi 1325; Ibn Said al Maghribi (1250); al-Zayyat (d1058); al Garnati (1169).

(24) Sayuna; Sayouna; Siyuna: found in Al Idrisi (1150); Ibn Said al Maghribi (1250); Abulfida (1331); Al Himyari (1461). According to Marcel Devic p 84 it might be the modern Sena on the Zambezi River. But here for Ibn Said Sayouna is at the mouth of the Ruvuma River (Trimingham 1973). Al Idrisi has it at Quelimane (Zambezi River). Reason: Idrisi (1150) gives distances between the different places that you can plot on the map; while Ibn Said (1250) gives coordinates and they go east instead of south. Following these coordinates, it has to be the Ruvuma River (see map under.) But it can also be Miquindana a Swahili town at the Lurio river, with a big Mosque but no archaeological research took place there.  But Idrisi was the original of whom Ibn Said copied; so Idrisi must be correct. There are also no medieval Swahili towns discovered at the Ruvuma Delta. (But several more recent ones are.) Sayuna wound up at the Ruvuma Delta through J. Spencer Trimingham (The Arab Geographers) in East Africa and the Orient 1973 as the text states it is at the mouth of a big river.

(25) canal of al-Qoumr: Between Madagascar and Mozambique.

(26) island of al-Qoumr: Charles Guillain in his: Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce de l'Afrique on p 267 has to conclude that all placenames on the island of Qumr are not from Madagascar. But the island itself is Madagascar.

(27) Lirana: Ibn Said (1250): Leyrana; Abulfeda (1331) says wrongly that Ibn Said places it in the land of Sofala.

According to Gill Shepherd (The Making of the Swahili: A View From the Southern End; Paideuma, 1982) Lirana is ‘al-Iharana’ also known as Vohemar, harbour in Northern Madagascar.

(28) Ibn Fatima: Arab geographer whose work is lost.

(29) sea al-Mouhit: Muhit; the all encircling outher ocean.

(30) Sirandib; Serandibi: Sri Lanca.

(31) Betel: See also Ibn Al-Baytar 1249 about Qumari leaves

(32) Kura Lake, from which emerge the Nile of Egypt, the Nile of Magdasu and the Nile of Gana: Ibn Said mistakenly takes lake Chad as the source of the Nile and has the Nile of Egypt, Shabelle (Nile of Mogadishu), and the Nile of Ghana (the Niger) start there.

(33) Donqoula; : Old Dongola is a deserted town in what is now Northern State, Sudan.

(34) land of the Kazla or Karla or Kazia: also mentioned by Abu al Fida (1331): they are Ethiopians, the most beautiful among the Africans, Christians except on the coast, those became Muslims.

(35) Khatt  al- Istiwa: equator (literally the equal line)

(36) Jazirat Qanbalu: Qanbuluh: The island of Qanbalu from where the Zanj slaves were imported till the great Zanj revolt in Basra. (Zanzibar or Pemba). The "Qanbalu" of Jahiz (d869) en Masudi (916) and many others after them. The days that it was the slave-trade center of East-Africa are far gone; by now the geographers do not know it anymore. Idrisi (1150) describes it as deserted. Ibn Said (1250):  It used to be prosperous but is now derelict. Abulfida (1331): it is now in ruins.

(37) Ras al- Djumdjuma: Ras al Hadd, the end of the Persian Gulf in the south east of Oman.