(I give an abbreviation; every title is a different chapter).

Alexander’s Arrival in the Land of the Giants and the Cannibal Zangis, and His Battle against Them

The size of Alexander’s army terrified the giants, forcing them to take refuge in a fort. When night came, the giants tried to attack Alexanders camp, but they could not break through the magic circle. Their King, seeking to make peace, sent a messenger and offered to go to Alexander's presence. But Alexander knew that if he spared their lives, they would always be a nuisance to man. Therefore he killed them all. From there, Alexander set out for the Land of the Fairies.

Alexander’s Arrival at the Well, the Story of the Maiden, and What Occurred between Alexander and the Zangis

Coming upon a well, Alexanders men tried to draw some water, but the rope broke every time they pulled the bucket. A man volunteered to enter the well and see what was wrong. Inside the well, he found a gigantic Zangi, the Zangi’s servant, and a maiden. There were houses and buildings under the ground, and the Zangi lived there as a king. Alexander slew the Zangi and his servant. The maiden, who was a king’s daughter and had been kidnapped by the Zangi, was rescued. An old man had given her an amulet that protected her against the Zangi’s advances.

(Alexander questions the Zangi) I worship idols the Zangi replied. Alexander said, renounce idolatry and accept the right faith so that I can include you as a hero in my army. The Zangi said, I do not want to. Everybody in the world has the same faith as I do. You captured me and confiscated my property and house and now you want to take my religion as well. I will not renounce my religion. Alexander said: There is no escape for you and you are powerless. Then he ordered them to behead him ……..

Alexander’s Arrival at the Hermit’s Cloister on the Mountaintop and What Occurred

Alexander met an old man, a follower of the religion of Abraham, who told him about Solomon and gave him an amulet containing the great name of God. That night, until morning, lions and wild beasts came to pay homage to the name of God and brought offerings of food.

Alexander married the maiden whom he had saved from the Zangi. The old man brought Alexander many varieties of fruit as a gift for his wedding and told the King stories about Solomon.

Alexander departed from that region and reached the Land of the Fairies .

Alexander’s Arrival in the Land of the Fairies and the Story of his Meeting with Araqit, the Fairy Queen, and What Occured

Alexander’s Invasion into Araqit’s Territory and the Arrival of Araqit’s Uncle to her Aid

The Arrival of Araqit’s Uncle and the Fairies at the Camp, and the Story Between Him and Alexander

Araqit becomes an ally and a wife of Alexander.

Alexander's Arrival in Russia, the Story Between Him and the Russians, and the Dream He Had in that Land

Where after massacring the Russians Alexander meets a Zebra as beautiful as 1000 idols; he tries to catch it alive; and keeps following it by horse. He finds a dead Zangi, bitten by a snake; the snake has curled itself now around a chest. Inside the chest he finds as the snake and zebra look on a maiden like 1000 idols. She had been kidnapped by the Zangi as a present for his king. Alexander marries the maiden the following night. Then Alexander goes to the king of the Zangis that should have received the maiden as a present. The king of the Zanj, Qatil (lit: killer) is given a breath so foul that the white maidens he violates suffocate to death. The Zangis are: Big as a mountain, darker then ink, with the face of a human but teeth like a boar’s tusk and a tale like a donkey’s.

Alexander departed and reached another city. He encamped there. The city was inhabited by believers and there were dervishes there, When they heard the news about Alexander, they came to bow before him. They did so and they also complained, saying ‘O King! Listen to our cry because we are in trouble because of the cannibal demons. Every year they take 1,000 men from our city to eat them!  Alexander asked, ‘What is the distance between your city and their place? ’They replied,‘ It is three days ’distance.’ Alexander ordered, ‘Be at ease because I will protect you from their malevolence. ’They said, ‘It is the time that they are about to come and take 100 men. Someone will give his son and another one his brother. Someone else who has gold, he will buy a slave and hand him in. This is the arrangement we have made. ’Alexander said, ‘We are staying here for five days. If someone comes, let us know! The next day 500 horsemen, demons with ugly faces, came asking for 100 men. …………..

Alexander’s Arrival at the Fortress of Qatil the Zangi, the Story Between the King and the Zangis, and the Seizure of the Fort

Alexander's arrival at the fortress of Qatil the Zangi, in the fort there were 7000 cannibal Zangis; each ate a whole ox every day. And in chronicles and early writings it is stated that the Zangis were remnants of the tribes of Ad and Uj (1). They had huge bodies; their heads were as big as a lahd (2); their mouths were like the opening of a cave, and their teeth like the tusks of a boar.

(The messenger of Qatil arrives in Alexanders camp)

The Zangi stretched his arm to unfasten a stone club from his belt. He squashed the ground, roaring so loud that some women and children in Alexander’s army were killed.

Alexander promises the messengers from the Zangi king: I will kill every single one of you. And later: I have come to this land to save mankind from your nuisance,….and kill each one of you, if God is on our side; after this the war starts with heavy losses on both sides.

How Qatil the Zangi Sent 2,000 Men to Seek the Bride, and Alexander Made a Surprise Attack on Them.

The Zangis went to the seashore, and waited for ships that would take them to the sea in search of the bride. They were all killed by Alexander's men. A second group sent by Qatil were all captured. Qatil sent to his brother, Rafi, and asked him to come to his aid.

How Rafi‘ the Zangi Came to the Aid of His Brother and They Fought Alexander

Rafi joined forces with Qatil but they were defeated. Alexander took Rafi‘ prisoner and after many more wars and adventures, finally hanged him. Qatil sent for Raft’s son, Anbar, to come to his aid.

Qatil, angered against Land, the one-eared Zangi, cut off his other ear. Land secretly joined Alexander's service as a spy.

How Anbar Received Qatil’s Letter, Gathered an Army and Went to the Aid of his Uncle, and the Story Between Them and Alexander

Anbar after mourning his father killed by Alexander, Anbar gathered his men in ships and left. Alexander gathered his army and spoke to them: An angel told me: The slaying of a Zangi is retribution for a year’s sins which would deserve to be punished by hell. You will slay so many that God alone will know their number. You must still stay in this country……

Anbar arrived with 2000 men 10000 to follow later. He brought a hermit with him locked in a chest.

How Anbar Descended from the Fort with 2,000 Men, and the Battle between the Zangis and the King

Alexanders men defeated the Zangis in battle. Then Anbar himself came to the field and challenged Alexander to combat. But Alexander’s men did not want their King to fight in person. Seven men from Alexander's army confronted Anbar, but they were defeated and taken captive one by one. Eventually Anbar was defeated and taken captive by Araqit. He was tortured and finally put to death.

Qatil sent messengers to Zangbar and asked Shahmalik to come to his aid.

Alexander’s men pitched camp in the garden and prepared to face Shamalik and the Zangis.

The Sudden Assault of Buqraquz, Shahmalik’s Son, Against Alexander’s Camping Ground, the Capture of Buqraquz and What Happened Between Alexander and Them.

Shahmalik’s son, Buqraquz, was defeated and captured by Alexander, who put him in chains. Alexander reproached Shahmalik and his son for having initiated the hostilities. Buqraquz told the king that his father had gone mad out of grief for the loss of his daughter who was kidnapped by the fairies, and that he himself had warned his father against uniting with the Zangis. Alexander questions him and then informs him that he has taken his sister who was a prisoner of the fairies as his wife. Shahmalik sues for peace and sends valuable presents to Alewander. Who does not give an immediate answer.

Alexander’s Battle against Qatil the Zangi and What Occurred between Them

The angel came to Alexander with good tidings of victory over the Zangis but warned him against the infidel Turks.

A thousand Zangis were gathered around Araqit and started fighting her. That day Ardqit fought so bravely that all the Iranians, the Greeks and the whole army were astonished. Alexander felt for her. Araqit rode until she reached Qatil, who was terrified. He retreated; he called the men at the fort and returned there. Araqit, who was riding like 1,000 horsemen, hunted him. From the Zangis, 1,000 men were killed. Alexander was pleased.

The next day Alexander summoned those captured commanders and put them next to the messenger (of Shahmalik), Alexander had the messenger sit on a golden chair and he did not accept Shahmalik’s gifts. Then he answered and said, Tell Shahmalik, O you foul infidel! Previously you had not heard the name of Alexander, the son of Darius and you ambushed me. Now you send me gold and precious gifts!

Then Alexander ordered the thirty Turks to convert to Islam and renounce idolatry. They refused and said, We do not renounce our faith and we do not embrace Islam! Alexander ordered his men to behead the thirty commanders and turbulence was caused in the camp.

Then they left and they brought Buqraquz before Alexander without chains and dressed him in beautiful clothes. When Bugraquz looked around, he saw the messenger of his father and all the riches and wealth that Alexander had accumulated. He also saw Alexander's majesty. Shahmalik's son was terrified and wanted to eat poison. He started reconsidering his view. Alexander said to him; Embrace and accept Islam and say that the God of the Seven Spheres of the Sky and the Earth is One. Otherwise I will behead you, for there can be no agreement with idolaters. Shahmalik’'s son said, ‘I swore to the God of the Seven Spheres of the Sky and the Earth that He is One and I renounced idolatry.

Then Qatil was told, This King who entered the battleground is Alexander! Yesterday you ordered us to inform you when he enters the battlefield. When Qatil heard this, he cried out aloud and entered the battleground. When Alexander saw Qatil, he invoked the name of the Almighty and looked at Qatil. And this foul Zangi was very strong! Alexander was thinking of the Zangi’s strength and Alexander’s men were afraid, saying, The King is in the dragon’s nest! If he does not make it, then we are dead! They sent someone to look for Araqit while Alexander was fighting the infidel Qatil. Alexander's men were praying while the Zangis were getting prepared to assault Alexander's army. They fought for half a day and after this, both opponents were tired. No one could advance.

Meanwhile, Araqit and the fairies conquered the fort and put the Zangis to flight. The old hermit was rescued from Qatil’s prison. Arait gave birth to a son whom they called Iskandarus. They celebrated the event seven days and seven nights.

That night, as every night, Alexander was in the prayers area, thanking the Omnipotent Almighty for making things against the Zangis easier for him. Early in the morning, Alexander ordered his army to stand up and kill each of the Zangis who were still alive on the seashore and everywhere.

(Qatil is made prisoner; Alexander wants to convert him)

Become a Muslim and you will be with me wherever I go. But if you do not become a Muslim, I will immediately hang you.’ Qitil replied, ‘You cannot kill me! .................. Qatil said to Alexander, ‘Stand up and come! I want to show you something.’ Alexander went with him. He saw a hole. He dug and there was found a gate. Qatil brought out a key and gave it to Alexander, When they opened the gate, there was a very big house revealed. There were also 100,000 skulls, which had been put there. All of them had been hanged. When Alexander saw these, he said, ‘O you villain! Why are you showing these to me?’ Qitil replied, ‘Because | want you to know what kind of place this fort is!’ Alexander thought, ‘I must kill this infidel, so that everyone is punished!’ Qatil said, ‘O King! Beware that 100,000 Zangis are coming tomorrow and a single one of you will not remain alive!’

He added, ‘Come for I want to show you something else!’ Alexander followed him once more. He dug another hole and another gate was revealed. When they opened it, there was a hole, which was bright from the light of the air. Alexander saw 500 men who were alive and chained sitting there and receiving water and bread through that hole. Alexander asked them, ‘Who are you?’ They could not give them an answer. He saw that

each one of them had their mouths shut. There was an underground gate and ten vicious Zangis sat there. When it was time for lunch, the Zangis removed the food from the men’s mouths who cried aloud, ‘Alas! Alas!’ They were all full of the Zangis’ filth and evil. Everyone was into evil and filth. Alexander asked them, ‘Where are you from?’ They replied, ‘Each one of us is coming from a city where, thank God, we worship God! The

Zangis sent all of us here and we are all merchants.’ Alexander inquired, ‘How long have you been here?’ They replied, ‘It has not been very long.’ Some said four months and some others said two months. Alexander ordered his men to take the merchants and bring them out of the fort to the Haft Anbar Garden. They cleaned them and gave to them clothes and food, having a good time. Alexander said to them, ‘Be happy for I will

seek revenge from this evil Qatil for you!’ Alexander said to Qatil, ‘What else is left to show me?’ Qatil replied, ‘Nothing is left! Only the Zangis are expected to come and they will punish you and your army.’ ..............

Alexander sat on his throne and his men brought Qatil before him. Alexander said, O you villain; Why did you make Muslims suffer? what for? Qatil replied, I wanted to eat them! Alexander asked the hostages, Did he eat anyone of you? They replied, There was a youth amongst us; he was beautiful like the sun and the moon. He was still a child. Qatil summoned him and did immoral things to him. The youth shouted. Qatil with his wrath cut the youth with his teeth and ate him. Alexander ordered them to kill that villainous dog. They brought an iron smashing machine and they smashed Qatil's teeth in it. They also cut both his nose and ears and that day they kept him alive.

The next day, Alexander ordered them to bring him and they dragged out and cut off his tongue and throat. They took one of his eyes out and then took him to the prison where he shouted and cried due to his pain until the morning. On the fourth day, they brought him and left him there. Alexander ordered them to pierce his face and they opened two holes in his face. Then they cut one of his hands and sent him back to prison again. The next day, they brought him and cut his testicles. Then they took him back to prison but he did not die. On the seventh day, they brought him, cut his right foot but again he did not die and they gave him food.

How the King of Zangis, Mankus, Came to Shahmalik with the Zangis, the Battle between Shahmalik and Alexander, and What Occurred

In addition to the Zangis, Shahmalik had sent for the Elephant-ears, a tribe who lived near the rising-place of the sun. Alexander allowed Mankus and 600 of his men to enter the fort, only to trap and kill them. In the battle with Shahmalik, Alexander won the victory as well. The Zangis sent for Mankus’s son who arrived with 50,000 Zangis to avenge his father’s death.

That night Alexander prayed to God until midnight.

The next day he receives two horsemen the prophet Khidr (3) and his brother Ilyas (4). They tell him to fight the infidel Turks who had arrived and warn of a secret passage to enter the fort.

Alexander prepared for war as Khidr (3) had instructed him. Meanwhile, Araqit defeated an army of 100,000 Turks who had planned to attack Alexander at night. She returned to the fort, searching for the under-ground passage mentioned by Khidr (3). The secret passage was discovered, and the Zangis were allowed to enter the fort through it only to be put to the sword.

Shahmalik sends the same messenger to Alexander. When the messenger approached the fort, he looked at it and saw Qatil’s body hanging. The messenger was astonished. Alexander had ordered his men to hang the skulls of the Zangis around the parapets of the fort. ………………  He said to the messenger, This is the story of Qatil and Shahmalik’s son: I will bring you Qatil out of the fort. But your son is a Muslim now. What can be done to a pious and religious person who is amongst the infidels? When I kill you and if your army does not embrace Islam, I will destroy them! By God's will, | shall deliver this city and region to the Muslims. If you come to fight me, the way is already closed!

Shahmalik’s Seduction of Araqit for his Son, Tafqaj, and What Happened

Shahmalik writes a letter to Araqit asking Araqit to change sites in the war and marry his oldest son tafqaj, and two women deliver the letter. She failed to give them an answer. Alexander is informed of the plot and sends one of the women, the wife of Shahmalik’s cupbearer back with the false message that Araqit would be waiting for his son. Araqit is put into chains.

How the Cupbearer’s Wife Deceived Tafqaj and Surrendered Him to Alexander

Aided by the cupbearer’s wife, Alexander seized Tafqaj and imprisoned him. Meanwhile Shahmalik and Manku’s son, Akhtaf, united and waged war against Alexander. These were not Zangis but Turks. They loose the war and Shahmalik’s daughter a wife of Alexander reaches to capture one of the important Turks. When Araqit heard how Shahmalik’s daughter had assisted Alexander in battle, she became so jealous that she fainted and remained un conscious for twenty-four hours. She later implored the King to pardon her, but Alexander refused to do so. The important Turks were hanged after they refused to accept the faith.

How Tafqaj’s Letter to Araqit Was Discovered by Alexander

Tafqaj, who was imprisoned in the fort, sent a letter to Araqit, urging her to set him free and escape with him. Araqit wrote him a favorable answer. Her letter was intercepted, and she was imprisoned in a dungeon. There were rumors that she was caught with Tafqaj.

Later, the Zangis freed Tafqaj from prison and took him away with Qatil’s bride and Alexander's concubines. When the King was informed of this he went to Araqit’s dungeon, only to discover that she too was missing.

The Story Between Araqit and Tafqaj, How She Pursued Tafqaj and the Zangis, and their War

The fairies released Araqit and together they beat a group of 400 Zangis on the beach. And they deliver a wounded Tafqaj to Alexander.

The Trick of Shahmalik’s Daughter to Poison Alexander, How He Discovered her Plans and What Happened

Shahmalik’s daughter was now jealous of Araqit and with her brother Buqraquz reach to get poison from their father to kill Alexander and Araqit. The plot however gets exposed and Buqraquz killed by the King. Shahmalik’s Daughter is surrendered to Araqit to do with her as she pleased.

How the Cupbearer’s Wife Surrendered Shahmalik to Alexander by Means of Deceit

Alexander poisoned Shahmalik’s daughter and placed her in a chest with the dead body of Buqraquz. The cupbearers wife told Shahmalik that she had brought his daughter and Alexander both unconscious in the chest.

How Arsalankhan Became King and What Occurred between Him and King Alexander

Arsalankhan succeeded his brother, Shahmalik, and became king. The cupbearer’s wife went to Alexander and offered to deliver Arsalankhan and Mankus’s son to him. She instructed Alexander to wait near a certain hill with his princes. When he did as she had said, she went to Arsalankhan and told him where he could capture Alexander and his princes. Arsalankhan set out with 50,000 horsemen. He captured Alexander and all his men except for two who made their escape.

Alexander instructed his companions to treat him as an equal and say that Alexander was not with them. Arsalankhan’s messenger, Qaymun, who recognized Alexander, bribed the guard and took Alexander to his own house. Arsalankhan was led to believe that Alexander had not been taken prisoner.

How Araqit and Aristotle (1) Were Informed of Alexander’s Detention and their Plan to Rescue Him

The fairies inform them about the facts and they prepare for war. After some fighting Alexander and Araqit are reunited.

The Return of Alexander to his Camping-Ground and the End of His Story with Arsalankhan

Alexander made his escape and returned to his camp. Meanwhile, the conflict between the followers of Shahmalik and Arsalankhan led to a war. The supporters of Shahmalik freed Alexanders princes.

The cupbearers wife was punished by death.

Afterward, fifty ships belonging to the Zangis arrived. The angel appeared to Alexander and told him that he would fight the enemy on the water. Alexander prayed to God to make the water solid under his feet, and he and 400 men rode to the sea and fought the ships. Many of the Zangis were killed, and the rest fled.

How Tarzak, Prince Qaymun, Qaymaz, and Ayaz Fared after They Accepted the Faith

 Some of Arsalankhan’s followers accepted Islam and joined Alexander, who rewarded them generously.

Arsalankhan confronted Araqit in battle and fled to the fort, seriously wounded. Alexander invited him to accept the faith, or else face him in combat the next day. Arsalankhan asked for a two-week truce until he had recovered.

The angel appeared to Alexander and gave him the good tidings of victory.

The Arrival of Jundul the Zangi, What Occurred between Him and Alexander, and Shahmalik’s Escape to the Zangis

Jundul, the King of the Zangis, called his dispersed troops together and ordered them to fight against Alexander on their own, rather than as allies of the Turks. There was a battle between them and Alexander, many more were killed on both sides.

Meanwhile, Shahmalik, who had deceived Alexander into believing that he had converted into Islam, escaped and joined the Zangis. Shahmalik fought his brother, Arsalankhan, and defeated him. His army grew numerous and he became strong. When Alexander heard of this, he was distressed. Araqit went to Zubaydah and asked her to pray for their victory. 

The Story of Araqit and the Fairies’ Assault Against Shahmalik’s Army and Shahmalik’s Arrest

 Araqit with 1400 fairies attack the now united Zangies and Turks and slash of their heads. Shahmalik is captured. Alexander has him hanged in the fort. Arsalankhan asks for help from the Elaphant ears.

Alexander’s War Against the Elephant Ears and Arslankhan, his Displeasure with Araqit and How He Cast Her Away

How Araqit Went to Zubayda’s Cloister and the Story Between Her, Alexander and Arslankhan

Alexander’s Capture by Arslankhan at his Hunting Place and his Rescue by Araqit and the Army

Arslankhan’s Capture and Execution by Araqit, and the Conquest of the City

The Story of Alexander with Yaqutmalik, the Daughter of Araqit’s Uncle, the Fairies and Araqit

The Annon. Iskandarnamah and East Africa.

-Alexander leaves China, goes to the land of Taghmaj in which Shahmalik is king; the king of a Turkish nation who will have a big role in the war with the Zangis. He then proceeds to the land of the Giants and the Cannibal Zangis, then Fairyland followed by Russia where he meets a zebra and again the Zangis on their way to their own land with a bride for their king. After that Alexander arrives in the land of Qatil the Zangi.  Zebras are nearly absent from Muslim manuscripts so this mention shows some knowledge of Africa.

-As all this travelling was without any ships we must still be in Asia. Where there are at least some of the Zangi kingdoms. With others in Zangbar called in to help Qatil are across the ocean or sea as they arrive by ship. 

-A glimpse of how the Iskandarnamah sees the world geographically we get from the questions Alexander asks Buqraquz the son of Shahmalik: Tell me; how far is your land (=Taghmaj) from the rising place of the sun? We can reach the rising place of the sun in five days. ……  Are there any inhabitants in the land? Yes there are but they are naked and of different kinds. Among them are Gog and Magog …………. There is another tribe yet unvisited by man …..

-Note that this book is not the only Alexander based story to put the Zangis is Asia.

See my webpage on: Jamali; Khamsa (Quintet) (1465)

-In most explanations (=tafsir) of the Coran the following is said about the people living there where the sun rises: (see my webpage of Umayr Ibn Qatadah 'Ubayd b. 'Umayr (d 694))

At the place where the sun rises Dhu al-Qarnayn (=Alexander) found a people for whom God had provided no cover because in their land there were no mountains nor trees. They did not have the capacity to build and live in houses but they hid in the water and made tunnels. When the sun ceased to be upon them they came out to their way of life and their fields. These people are the Zanj.

(You can also read on the webpage which authors repeated this during the following centuries)

-As the Muslim world maps  pointed Africa to the east instead of the south, the connection with Zangbar was close.

-In those centuries there were actually black people living in Central Asia.

See my webpage on Aqquyunlu Album in which many paintings from: Muhammad Siyah Qalam (14^th century) in his paintings from central Asia and in that from those who imitated his style half of the people are black. Also Chinese paintings from those people in that century contain many black people (see same webpage).

-In this book the role the merchants have is important. At one moment a Zangi king called Arslankhan is taken prisoner: Then they brought him before Alexander. He asked Arslankhan to embrace Islam and to renounce idolatry. In this case, he would give him the castle of the Zangi’s and 100 Muslim Turkish horsemen to help Muslims and merchants and to open a road for the markets. Thus, he would escape death. (He will be killed anyhow). Also the religious definition Alexander gives of the merchants: After having taken a very bad and rich person captive: He said, ‘O shameful villain! Merchants are the trustees of God on earth. Why have you acquired such a bad reputation and why have you behaved so deviously? Why are you the most faithless one and so without piety?

Taken from: Islamic Lore and Supernatural Creatures in the Persian Prose Book of Alexander (Iskandarnama) by Evangelos Venetis

In the Iskandarnama the role of the Zangis is prominent in the narrative, covering 176 pages. Their role as frightful enemies is clear in the narrative. Araqit points out that a vast region of Central Asia belongs to the king Arslankhan. The people of this region obey Araqit but only the Zangis remain independent. In fact Araqit has no power over them.

The main feature of the Zangis in the Iskandarnama is their role as the unbeatable adversaries of Alexander. Every time they are defeated by the hero, they re-emerge later as even stronger and ready to ruin Alexander’s plans for world domination. Their military virtue is due to their evil nature. After his trip to Russia, Alexander heads to the land of Qatil (=killer) the King of the Zangis, aiming to kill them and conquer their land. The struggle between Alexander and the Zangis seems inconclusive at the outset but Alexander prevails temporarily. The Zangi’s threat will re-emerge later on in the narrative. Even Araqit takes action in order to defeat the eternal enemy of Alexander.

Eventually, Jundul, the last king of the Zangis, will be defeated in spite of this effort to seek an alliance with Shahmalik’s army. It is at this part of the narrative that the epic element reaches its peak. The narrative is full of battles, combats and war scenes.

The role of the Zangis in the Iskandarnama is closely associated with their supernaturally war-like and frightful image. They have an anthropomorphic shape but their details are not human. The Zangi is marvelled for his height (18 gaz = 450 inches!) and his stoutness. In the story with the maiden and the chest, the maiden’s future bridegroom is black and frightful and in Alexander’s campaign against the Zangis, they have huge bodies, their heads are as huge as a lahd (2), their mouths are like the openings of a cave and their teeth like the tusks of a boar. Due to Qatil, the king of the Zangis’, foul breath the white maidens whom he violates die. The Zang messenger stamped on the ground and roared so loud that of the women and children in Alexander’s army a number died. However, their mental strength is not analogous to their physical stature. They are described as stupid and ignorant with a total lack of wisdom. They are so presumptuous that the Zangi messenger dares to attack Aristotle (2) in front of Alexander in the latter’s camp.

Another aspect of their character in the Iskandarnama is their cannibalism. Alexander commences the war against the Zanj in order to rescue a devout people who pay an annual tribute of 1,000 men to the cannibal Zanj, who eat men. The maiden’s bridegroom is a cannibal like the other Zangis . Their tremendous eating ability is associated with cannibalism: Cannibal Zangis eating an ox every day. Their image as cannibals does not exist in the Shahnama but it is strongly established in the Persian romances. In the Darabnama they appear as cannibals in the story taking place by the Sea of Uman. In the Sharafnama the Egyptians are attacked by a coalition army of Nubians, Ethiopians and the Zanj. The defenders ask for Alexander’s help. The Zanj chief kills Alexander’s messenger and drinks his blood.

However, the main feature of the Zangis image is that they are the worst infidels. It is this feature that boosts the Muslim profile of Alexander in the narrative. They appear as cannibal monsters or devils (div=Ahriman), the enemies of mankind. They are Alexander’s eternal adversaries, the personification of evil and ugliness, the dar al harb and the pagan part of the universe. That is why Alexander campaigns against them; his aim is not to subdue and convert the Zangis to Islam, because this is impossible. He wants to exterminate them. They are hopeless pagans without any prospect of spiritual improvement. The only war against them is jihad:

(Alexander to the messenger of the King of the Zangis): I have come to this land to save mankind from your nuisance, ... and kill each one of you, if God is on our side.

Alexander appears precisely as the most appropriate muqatil to deal with the unbeatable pagans. Having such a legendary adversary, the Zangis, Alexander’s esteem as a holy warrior reaches is peak. Alexander is transformed into the protector of the right faith against the House of War. Alexander gives the ultimate battle in the war of Good vs. Evil.

The symbolic representation of the Blacks in the narrative reflects beliefs and stereotypes of the Islamic society for them. Southgate correctly states that the only reason for this attitude of the Persian Alexander Romances toward the Blacks is the perception of the Blacks as the Other simply because of their physical appearance. Theoretically, Islam condemns discrimination. However, in practical and financial terms, a different attitude was developed in several geographical and social environments. During the financial and political development of the Arabs, the enslavement of the blacks was considered beneficial for them by the Arabs since the latter gave the blacks the chance to discover Islam. Stereotypes such as the notion that the black skin colour is a punishment inflicted by God or that the Blacks are physically and morally inferior to whites reflect the magnitude of the practical divergence from the dogmatic principles of Islam. At that time these notions were well accepted by a part of the population and were considered as the result rather of divine will than of the effects of an intemperate climate. In the Iskandarnama, it is possible to detect all these notions and see how the hero interacts with them. In fact, Alexander personifies the concept of the ideal model of the Muslim ruler and conqueror of that time in Islamic society in Iran. His attitude toward the Zangis is the attitude of the audience and society.

Taken from: THE ISKANDARNAMA: AN ANALYSIS OF AN ANONYMOUS MEDIEVAL PERSIAN PROSE ROMANCE by EVANGELOS VENETIS.

P21

Alexander's Muslim profile in the narrative is formed through the concept of the dhu'l-qarnayn (the double-horned one), the model of the conquering Muslim warrior, the influence of the Qisas al-anbiya' tradition and role of supernatural creatures which are associated with Islamic lore. These creatures are extensively analyzed in order to denote their profile within Muslim lore. They are identified with the davalpayan, the Elephant-Ears, the Demons (Divs), the Zangis and the Paris (Fairies).

P74

A story which has been taken from the Shahnama is Alexander’s fight against the Blacks. These are mentioned as Habbash (lit. those who scrape their skin)' by Firdawsi, whilst in the Iskandarnama they are called Zangi. Moreover, the Zangis in the Iskandarnama are located in Central Asia, while in the Shahnama they are somewhere in the West, and mainly in Africa. This relocation results from two factors: the lack of knowledge about geography on the author's part and the use of the Zangis as a symbolic representation of pagan Turk. ……. In a series of numerous episodes, the Turks are allied to the Zangis against Alexander. The fact that the narrative takes place in Central Asia gives the author the opportunity to borrow from the Shahnama the well-known theme of the eternal battle between Iran and Turan.

P93

War against pagans is symbolically expressed by describing them as ugly monsters. Zangis, Davalpayan, Divs, Elephant-Ears are those monster-like enemies of Alexander in his struggle to spread Islam. By coincidence, all of them, with the exception of the Davalpayan, fight Alexander in Central Asia.

P98

While Turkistan is given as one geographical entity in the narrative, symbolizing Central Asia or the lands beyond the river, the people who live there are not described as having one ethnic entity. There are the Turks, but apart from this definition the author uses literary techniques, and symbols in particular, in order to describe the infidel other. The main literary tool is the negative description of the infidel warriors, as ugly and beast-like beings, such as the giants, Davalpayan and Zangis. The latter due to their important role in the narrative are of particular importance.

P99-100-101

The term Zangi literally means black and more specifically ‘African black'. The Zangis in Persian literature of Islamic times form a savage nation of black-skinned people who live in Abyssinia or east Africa and fiercely oppose Islam. They are the personification of ugliness and symbols of idolatry for Muslims. In the Persian Alexander tradition, the Zangis as Alexander's adversaries appear also in Firdawsi's Shahnama, in Tarsusis Darabnama and in Nizamis Iskandarnama. Especially in Nizami's account they are described in the same fashion but their location is totally different than that in the prose Iskandarnama: they dominate the land between southern Egypt and Abyssinia. In fact this is the 'natural' geographical setting for the Zangis since they are historically associated with the African continent. In the poem of the Iskandarnama the Zangis are fierce idolater warriors who are ready to prevent Alexander from continuing his campaign.

In the prose Iskandarnama, however, this is not the case. Here the Zangis are described as having the same image, as Alexander's infidel adversaries. They form a necessary obstacle that Alexander needs to overcome. However, their role in the plot is slightly different. They do not appear at the early part of Alexander's campaign. By contrast, they appear in the middle and later stages of the plot. They play a prominent role as Alexander's foes in Turkistan and Central Asia. The episode of the Zangis as direct foes of Alexander follows his visit to Russia. Once Alexander arrives in the Land of Zangis, he encamps outside the fort of the king of Zangis Qatil and, after several discussions with the messengers of Qatil, he starts fighting against the blacks. The king's wars against the fierce Zangis are endless throughout the rest of the narrative. However, step by step King Alexander defeats the Zangis.

The striking similarities in Nizami's poetical account and the Iskandarnama prose romance suggest that it is the same story which has been used in a different context by the author of the prose Iskandarnama. Here the Zangis are not only a preliminary obstacle in Alexander's endeavour to conquer the world but rather they form one of the primary and unsurpassed obstacles. The Zangis have the same image of infidel blacks in the prose Iskandarnama. However, they are located in Central Asia and this is the key detail. Why did the author decide to copy a story which was traditionally taking place in East Africa and transplant it hundreds of thousands of kilometres away. in Turkistan and Central Asia? How does the image of the African black coexist with the geographical environment of Central Asia? It could simply be assumed that, since the Iskandarnama is primarily a legendary account, then anything can happen about its repertoire. In legends there are no strict rules about the arrangement and type of the stories. But things are not so simple.

The fact that the author transplants a story from the African region into eastern Iran and Central Asia is certainly not accidental. The key issue for the author is the great extent of the infidelity of the African Zangis. By relocating them to Turkistan and the region nearby, he ingeniously transfers symbolically the front line of the dar al-harb from Africa to Central Asia. Why does he do that? Probably because the author wanted to reflect in his account the struggle between the forces of Islam and the infidels in eastern Iran and Transoxiana. By using the well-established image of the invincible black African infidels in eastern Iran as a literary device, the author expresses the importance of conducting jihad on north-eastern fringes of the Muslim world. He increases the military skilfulness and virtue of the 'Zangis' in order to praise the legitimate endeavour of the

pious Muslim king and his soldiers to fight those infidels. Thus, the ultimate goal of the author is to focus indirectly on the importance of warfare for the righteous and pious king Alexander against the infidel Turks, or at least a branch of the Turkish confederacy.

The Zangis appear in the narrative not as Turks. On the one hand, Shahmalik and his Turkish dynasty rule Turkistan, but on the other hand, the Zangis are something different and mysterious. They have their own kingdom and, when they realize that they cannot defeat Alexander on their own, they join Shahmalik's forces against the Muslim king. Predictably, the Zangis cannot be identified with any historical peoples. It can be assumed though that they are a tribe(s) probably related to the Turkish line. The use of their name, Zangis (=blacks) is intentionally used by the author in order to maximize the extent of their fearsome ugly appearance and hence, idolatry. The Zangis as a reflection of infidels are ingeniously used in the Iskandarnama personifying the enemies from the land beyond the river against whom jihad was conducted, not only, in Sultan Mahmud's time but also during the reign of predecessors, successors as well as the Saljuq Sultans (eleventh and twelfth centuries). What is important though is that the 'African' Zangis are used in the Iskandarnama in a central Asian environment in order to strengthen the military merit of the infidels and point out the importance jihad in the eastern Iranian thughur.

P173

The underlying characteristic of his Muslim profile is that Alexander is a world conqueror (shahrgir) conducting an endless jihad. He is the undisputed master of his army and leads his soldiers onto the battlefield with confidence. As a ghazi (=holy warrior), Alexander reflects basic aspects of the Islamic hero. One of them is that of takbir which is uttered by Alexander or his soldiers during their fights against the idolaters. The expression Allahu Akbar (= God is Greatest) is repeated frequently in the narrative so as to denote the religious character of Alexander's campaign. …………….. In the land of Zangis, Alexander's men utter "Allahu Akbar ", as a sign of relief and enthusiasm when Alexander, inspired by God, strengthens his men in order to face successfully the horrifying Zangis.

P177

The foundation of the Isra’iyyat influence upon Islamic lore is probably due to the first collection of such stories by the bilingual Yemenite Persian Wahb b. Munabbih (654-732 AD) . He was the reason for the translation into Arabic and transmission into Islamic culture of many pre-Islamic myths, legends and sagas. Munabbih was the source for many stories of Nishapuri's Qisas al-anbiya'. In the case of the Iskandarnama, he is mentioned as the source for several stories, such as the Zangis, fairies, legends of David and Solomon.

P219

Another formulaic element concerning Alexander's female conquests is that on many occasions he marries women whom he saves from death or difficult circumstances. In Turkistan he saves a princess from death in the region near the Akhdar Sea. With his shrewdness, Alexander reveals the false accusations of two hermits that the princess was unchaste and punishes them by setting them on fire. The reward for Alexander is his marriage to the Princess. The same pattern is repeated in the case of a maiden who has been trapped by a Zangi in a well.

(1) tribes of Ad and Uj. Ad: is an ancient (Arab) tribe destroyed in a violent storm and mentioned frequently in the Qurʾan.

(2) a lahd: a niche made on the side of a grave.

(3) prophet Khidr: prophet, who guards the sea, teaches secret knowledge and aids those in distress.

(4) Ilyas: was a prophet and messenger of God (Allah) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel.

(5) Aristotle: was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece.

Under from de different Iskandarnamah (Manuchehr Hakim 19th century)