End of the Middle-Ages View on Monomotapa/ Zimbabwe  by the Portuguese.

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Note the following words:

Leagues: 5.5km

Mithqal/miticals: 4.25gr of gold

Almadias:  A small African canoe made of the bark of trees

Zambuk: Sambuk; is a type of dhow, a traditional wooden sailing vessel.

Note: This empire in the central part of Southern part of Africa is really not part of East Africa or the Swahili world. Although they were in contact with each other. The Portuguese give way more information about it than what I give here. The information given here is to highlight the difference with East Africa. In the East African interior, the kingdoms were only starting to emerge at the end of the Middle Ages while in the Southern part of Africa they were already very old.

Taken from: Ethiopia oriental, Volume 1 By João dos Santos. (d1622); His book is about 1580-1600.

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Third Book

Chapter I

Of the Kaffirs on the mainland of Mozambique and their customs and how they conquered that land.

Throughout this coast that runs from the rivers of Cuama to the island of Mozambique, which is one hundred and thirty leagues (league=5555m) of land, there are no powerful kings and great as are those that I have dealt with in the first and second book (that is deeper south). And although there are many vassal lords in it with everything, none of them have the title of king, although there are some Moors who live along this coastline in small towns, which they call kings of the same places where they live and are as in the past was the king of Sofala; Zufe who killed Pero de Anhaya of little substance and vast living. Which for the most part are evils of the nation. ………

Note: This is an important text; SE Africa was filled with kings and emperors; here there are only small kings with little power. Further North in Tanzania and Kenya there will be only some small kingdoms just beginning to appear.

Taken from: A description of the coasts of East Africa and Malabar, in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Duarte Barbosa 1514. Transl Stanley.

KINGDOM OF BENAMATAFA. (Monomotapa)

On entering within this country of Sofala, there is the kingdom of Benamatapa, which is very large and peopled by Gentiles, whom the Moors call Cafers. These are brown men, who go bare, but covered from the waist downwards with colored stuffs, or skins of wild animals; and the persons most in honor among them wear some of the tails of the skin behind them, which go trailing on the ground for state and show, and they make bounds and movements of their bodies, by which they make these tails wag on either side of them. They carry swords in scabbards of wood bound with gold or other metals, and they wear them on the left-hand side as we do, in sashes of colored stuffs, which they make for this purpose with four or five knots, and their tassels hanging down, like gentlemen; and in their hands azagayes (= iron-tipped spear), and others carry bows and arrows: it must be mentioned that the bows are of middle size, and the iron points of the arrows are very large and well wrought. They are men of war, and some of them are merchants: their women go naked as long as they are girls, only covering their middles with cotton cloths, and when they are married and have children, they wear other cloths over their breasts.

ZINBAOCH. (Zimbabwe)

Leaving Sofala for the interior of the country, at xv days journey from it, there is a large town of Gentiles, which is called Zinbaoch; and it has houses of wood and straw, in which town the King of Benamatapa frequently dwells, and from there to the city of Benamatapa there are six days journey, and the road goes from Sofala, inland, towards the Cape of Good Hope. And in the said Benamatapa, which is a very large town, the king is used to make his longest residence; and it is thence that the merchants bring to Sofala the gold which they sell to the Moors without weighing it, for colored stuffs and beads of Cambay, which are much used and valued amongst them; and the people of this city of Benamatapa say that this gold comes from still further off towards the Cape of Good Hope, from another kingdom subject to this king of Benamatapa, who is a great lord, and holds many other  kings as his subjects, and many other lands, which extend far inland, both towards the Cape of Good  Hope and towards Mozambich. And in this town he is each day served with large presents, which the kings and lords, his subjects, send to him; and when they bring them, they carry them bareheaded through all the city, until they arrive at the palace, from whence the king sees them come from a window, and he orders them to be taken up from there, and the bearers do not see him, but only hear his words; and afterwards, he bids them call the persons who have brought these presents, and he dismisses them. This king constantly takes with him into the field a captain, whom they call Sono, with a great quantity of men-at-arms, and amongst them they bring six thousand women, who also bear arms and fight. With these forces he goes about subduing and pacifying whatever kings rise up or desire to revolt. The said king of Benamatapa sends, each year, many honorable persons throughout his kingdoms to all the towns and lordships, to give them new regulations, so that all may do them obeisance, which is in this manner: each one of the envoys comes to a town, and bids the people extinguish all the fires that there are in it; and after they have been put out, all the inhabitants go to this man who has been sent as commissary, to get fresh fire from him in sign of subjection and obedience; and, whoever should not do this is held as a rebel, and the king immediately sends the number of people that are necessary to destroy him, and these pass through all the towns at their expense: their rations are meat, rice, and oil of sesame.

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol III

NOTES MADE BY GASPAR VELOSO, CLERK OF THE FACTORY OF MOZAMBIQUE, AND SENT TO THE KING

(in 1512)

Description of the voyage of the convict Antonio Fernandes into the interior of Monomotapa.

These are the kings there are from Sofala to the mine of Menomotapa, and the things to be found in each of these kingdoms.

Item, the first king that borders with Sofala is called Mycamdira and there is nothing to be had in his land save supplies and ivory.

Item, beyond this king there is another called the king of Mazira and he has nothing save supplies, and he lies two days Journey from the one above.

Item, the king of Quytomgue lies three days Journey from this other king and he has nothing save supplies.

Item, the king of Embya lies four days Journey from this other king and he has nothing save banditry.

Item, the king of Ynhacouce lies three days journey from this other king. He has supplies and ivory.

Item, the king of Ynhacouce (?) lies five days journey from this other king, he is the captain-major of the king of Menamotapa and he has great lands and in his lands they have fairs on Mondays which they call Sembaza fairs where the Moors sell all their merchandise; the Kafirs also gather there from all the lands and thus they have quantities of supplies; it is said that the fair is as big as that of the Vertudes, and the only coin is gold by weight.

Item, the king of Manhiqua lies six days journey from this other king and has a great amount of gold.

Item, the king of Amçoce lies four days journey from this other king and he mines a great amount of gold throughout his land, and this man saw it being drawn and he says that it can be seen where the gold lies because a herb like clover grows over it and that the greatest amount he saw mined in one day was a large basket full of bars the size of a finger and large nuggets, and there is nothing else save this gold, and he who mines it pays the king one half, and all their supplies come from abroad.

Item, the king of Barue (?) lies four days journey from this other king and has a great amount of gold that comes from abroad and quantities of ivory in his own land.

Item, the king of Betomgua lies three days journey from this other king and has no gold save that which comes from abroad.

Item, the king of Ynhaperapara lies four days journey from this other king and mines gold throughout his land and is a great king.

Item, the king of Boece lies five days journey from this other king and has gold that comes from abroad and is a great king.

Item, the king of Mazofe lies four days journey from this other king and there is much gold in his land and he who mines it pays him half.

Item, thence to Embire, which is a fortress of the king of Menomotapa and is now made of stone without mortar, which is called Camanhaya, and where he is always to be found, is a journey of five days and from there on is the kingdom of Menomotapa which is the source of the gold of all this land, and he is the greatest of all these kings, all of whom obey him as far as Sofala.

Item, beyond this king there is another who does not render him obedience and who is called the king of Butua and they lie ten days journey one from the other. He has much gold which is mined in his land along the fresh water rivers, and he is as great as the king of Menomotapa and is always at war with him.

Item, the king of Mombara lies seven days journey from the king of Menomotapa. In this land there is much ... much copper and it is from there that copper is brought to Menomotapa in loaves like ours, and throughout this other land. These men are ill proportioned and not very black and they have tails like sheep and a big river lies between this king and the king of Menomotapa which is crossed in almadias when they come to sell their merchandise; and they set it ashore and cross again to the other side, and then come the Moors or Kafirs who take the merchandise if it pleases them and leave there the cloth and whatever other merchandise they carry and then come the men with the tails, and if they are pleased with the merchandise the others have left they take it; if they are not pleased they go away and leave it until more is put there or other is brought, since they understand each other by signs. And the men with the tails worship cows and if one of them dies they eat him and bury a cow, and the blacker a negro is the more they pay to eat him, and they say that the meat of white men is more salty than that of black men.

Item, the king of Ynhoqua is at war with the king of Menomotapa and it is a kingdom with much gold and lies a journey of five days from Menomotapa; and this man did not go further than this kingdom due to the many wars there between these kings, and also because he had no gifts to give the kings since it is a custom in the whole land that when any stranger arrives, he must, for his safety and if he wishes to speak to the king, render some Service to the king otherwise he may not speak to him; and the kings shew their satisfaction by giving double. And from here he turned back and came to the kingdom of Monzambia by way of Sofala but not by the way he had gone that he might see other lands. In this kingdom there is cotton cloth which is taken to Menomotapa to be sold.

Item, from Ynhoqua he came to the kingdom of Moziba by way of Sofala. In this land there is nothing save cotton cloth which is made there and taken to Menomotapa to be sold.

Item, from there he came to the kingdom of Quytenge which lies seven days journey from this other kingdom. In this land much gold is mined and it borders with Batongua where there is much gold and ivory; the gold is mined in the land itself and there is much of it; in this land there is a river that runs to Cuama and flows into the sea sixteen leagues from the bar of Sofala; in this same river into the land of Quitengue a factory house can be built on an islet that lies in the middle of the river and which is about as long as a horse race course and as wide. If this house were built there Your Highness could have all the gold of this land and also that of Menomotapa because this islet lies ten days journey away and, besides, there is much ivory that could he traded and taken to India or to these kingdoms; in this way could be set right the trade of Sofala which is marred by a smaller river which runs from Angoxe to join this on at Quitengue and along which come many sambuks (type of dhow, a traditional wooden sailing vessel) loaded with cloth which is traded throughout the land. And once Your Highness has built this house a brigantine could be kept there to patrol these rivers and to stop any merchandise coming from Angoxe or from any other part, as the Moors of all this coast do all they can to injure Your Highness’s trade because they think that if they can injure the trade Your Highness will order the fortress of Sofala to be dismantled; and they place great hope in this now that the fortress in Kilwa is closed and a factory built in Malindi, and also because they know that Angediva and Socotra have been closed, and so they think Your Highness will order the same to be done in Sofala. And if this house were to be built Your Highness would make the trade of Sofala safe and take possession of all the gold of this land of Quitengue as well as of Menomotapa because it lies very dose by.

Amtonio Fernandez kept all these things to himself speaking of them to none so that he might tell them to Your Highness. And since he is returning to Menomotapa and runs the risk of dying there due to the many wars there are in the land I begged him that if he were keeping anything to himself in order to tell Your Highness he might impart it to me in duty to your Service, so that I might write to Your Highness since he has always told me that he desired to go to Portugal to talk to Your Highness of matters pertaining to your Service.

Item, from there he crossed the land of Betomgua and came to the land of Baro where there is also gold, and from Baro to Betongua is a journey of five days; from there he came to Sofala in twenty days. He brought with him Kafirs for the first time, who dared come with him despite the fear of us that the Moors put into them and they brought nine hundred mithqals to trade which they traded in the factory and a hundred mithqals as a gift to the captain; and the second time he returned he brought Kafirs who came to trade and who brought a gift to the captain; and the first time his journey, going and coming, took four months, and longer the second time due to the wars and floods. And all these people believe in nothing save the new moon and the first day they see it they worship ... people who are not very black though their hair is like the men of Guinea and those with the tails who worship cows and eat men are more swarthy than these; and these people, save for those with the tails, are armed with bows and arrows made of reeds and assegais (= iron-tipped spear) and short swords. And Amtonio Fernandez told me he had been in all these lands and seen them.

Taken from: A general history and collection of voyages and travels, arranged in systematic order [microform]: forming a complete history of the origin and progress of navigation, discovery and commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest ages to the present time by Kerr, Robert, 1755-1813 Vol 6.

Taken from: Portuguese Asia, by Manuel de Faria y Sousa (1646).

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Section VIII.

Transactions of the Portuguese in Monomotapa, from 1569 to the end of that separate government.

On the return of Francisco Barreto from the government of India in 1558, as formerly mentioned, he was appointed admiral of the galleys, in which employment he gained great honor in the memorable action of Pennon s and on his return to Lisbon, king Sebastian, who had determined upon making the division of the Portuguese governments in the east already mentioned, appointed Barreto to that of Monomotapa, with the additional title of Conqueror of the Mines. The great inducement for this enterprise was from the large quantities of gold said to be found in that country, and particularly at Manica in the kingdom of Mocaranga. Francisco Barreto sailed from Lisbon in April 1569, with three ships and 1000 soldiers. He might easily have had more men if the vessels could have contained them, as the reports of gold banished all idea of danger, and volunteers eagerly pressed forwards for the expedition, among whom were many gentle men and veterans who had served in Africa. On his arrival at Mozambique, Barreto went to subdue the king of Pate, who had revolted against the Portuguese authority. In his instructions, Barreto was ordered to undertake nothing of importance without the advice and concurrence of Francisco de Monclaros, a Jesuit, which was the cause of the failure of this enterprise. It was a great error to subject a soldier to the authority of a priest, and a most presumptuous folly in the priest to undertake a commission so foreign to his profession. There were two roads to the mines, one of which was through the dominions of Monomotapa, and the other by way of Sofala. Barreto was disposed to have taken the latter, but Monclaros insisted upon the former, and carried his point against the unanimous votes of the council

In De Faria no dates are given of these transactions, except that Barreto sailed from Lisbon in April 1569.

In modern geography the country called Monomotapa in the text is known by the name of Mocaranga, while Monomotapa is understood to be the title of the sovereign. It is sometimes called Senna by the Portuguese, from the name of a fort possessed by them in the interior.

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council of war; so that the first step in this expedition led to its ruin. But before entering upon the narrative of events, it may be proper to give some account of the climate, quality, and extent of the country. From Cape Delgado in lat. 10° 10' S. to Mozambique 14° 50', the coast is somewhat bent in the form of a bow, in which space are the islands of Pajaros, Amice, Mocoloe, Matembo, Querimba, Cabras, and others, with the rivers Pandagi, Menluane, Mucutii, Mucululo, Situ, Habe, Xanga, Samoco, Veloso, Pinda, Quisimaluco and Quintagone, with the bays of Xanga and Fuego, and the sands of Pinda. From Mozambique in lat. 14° 50' S. to the port or bay of Asuca in 21° 30', the coast falls off to the westwards, opposite to the Pracel de Sofala or great bank of Pracel, on the coast of Madagascar, the dangerous Scylla and Charibdis of those seas. On this coast are the rivers Mocambo, Angoxa, or Bayones, Mossige, Mojuncoale, Sangage, and others, with many islands, and the ports of Quilimane and Luabo ; the rivers Tendanculo, Quiloe, Sabam, Bagoe, Miaue, and Sofala, with the opposite islands of Inbausato, Quiloane, Mambone, Molimon, and Quilamancohi. Between Cape Bosiqua or St Sebastian in lat. 21° 40' S. and Cape Corientes in 24° S. is the great bay of Sauca, into which falls the river Inhambane, where there is a great trade for ivory. From the frequent recurrence of the soft letters L and M in these names, it may be inferred that the language of that country is by no means harsh. From the mouth of the Cuama or Zambeze in the east, the empire of Monomotapa extends 250 leagues into the interior of Africa, being divided by the great river Zambeze, into which falls the Chiri or Chireira, running through the country of Bororo, in which country are many other large rivers, on the banks of which dwell many kings, some of whom are independent, and others are subject to Monomotapa. The most powerful of the independent kings is he of Mongas, bordering on the Cuama or Zambeze, which falls into the sea by four mouths between Mozambique and Sofala. The first or most northerly of these mouths is that of Quilimane, ninety leagues from Mozambique; the second or Cuama is five leagues farther south;

According to modern maps, the Zambeze divides, the empire of Mocarranga, the sovereign of which is called Monomotapa, from the empire of the Bororos; and the river Chireira or Manzara on the south of the Zambeze, which it joins, is entirely confined to the country of Mocaranga.

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the third Luabo five leagues lower; and the fourth named Luabol five leagues more to the south. Between these mouths are three large and fertile islands; the middle one, named Chingoma, is sixty leagues in circumference. This great river is navigable for sixty leagues upwards to the town of Sena, inhabited by the Portuguese, and as much farther to Tete, another Portuguese colony. The richest mines are those of Massapa, called Anfur, the Ophir whence the queen of Sheba had the riches she carried to Jerusalem. In these mines it is said, that one lump of gold has been found worth 12,000 ducats, and another worth 40,000. The gold is not only found among the earth and stones, but even grows up within the bark of several trees as high as where the branches spread out to form the tops. The mines of Manchica and Butica are not much inferior to those of Massapa and Fura, and there are many others not so considerable. There are three fairs or markets which the Portuguese frequent for this trade of gold from the castle of Tete on the river Zambeze. The first of these is Luanze, four days journey inland from that place. The second is Bacuto farther off; and the third Massapa still farther. At these fairs the gold is procured in exchange for coarse cloth, glass beads, and other articles of small value among us. A Portuguese officer, appointed by the commander of Mozambique, resides at Massapa with the permission of the emperor of Monomotapa, but under the express condition of not going into the country, under pain of death. He acts as judge of the differences that arise there. There are churches belonging to the Dominicans at Massapa, Bacuto, and Luanze. The origin, number, and chronology of the kings of Monomotapa are not known, though it is believed there were kings

Sena is 220 English miles from the sea; Tete is 260 miles higher up: so that this great river is navigable for 480 miles, probably for small vessels.

Massapa is the name of a Portuguese fort or settlement on the river Mocaras, a branch of the Chireira, in the interior of Mocaranga. Anfur or Fura is a mountain about 100 miles from Massapa, said to contain rich gold mines.

Luanze is about 100 miles south from Tete, on one of the branches of the Chireira;

Bacuto is 40 miles south ot Luanze.

Massapa is about 45 miles S.S.W.from Buento or Bacuto, or 170 miles in that direction from Tete.

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here in the time of the queen of Sheba, and that they were subject to her, as she got her gold from thence. In the mountain of Anfur or Fura, near Massapa, there are the ruins of stately buildings, supposed to be those of palaces and castles. In process of time this great empire was divided into three kingdoms, called Quiteve, Sabanda, and Chicanga, which last is the most powerful, as possessing the mines of Manica, Butua, and others. It is believed that the Negroes of Butua, in the kingdom of Chicanga, are those who bring gold to Angola, as these two countries are supposed to be only one hundred-leagues distance from each other. The country of Monomotapa produces rice and corn, and has plenty of cattle and poultry, the inhabitant- addicting themselves to pasturage and tillage, and even cultivating gardens. It is divided into 25 kingdoms or provinces, named Mongas, Baroe, Manica, Boese, Macingo, Remo, Chique, Chiria, Chidima, Boquizo, Inhanzo, Chiruvia, Condesaca, Daburia, Macurumbe, Mungussi, Antiovaza, Chove, Chungue, Dvia, Romba, Rassini, Chirao, Mocaranga, and Remo-de-Beza. The emperor has a large wooden palace, the three chief apartments of which are, one for himself, another for his wife, and the third for his menial servants. It has three doors opening into a large court, one appropriated for the queen and her attendants, one for the king and the servants attached to his person, and the third for the two head cooks, who are great men and relations of the king, and for the under-cooks who are all men of quality below twenty years of age, as none so young are supposed to have any commerce with women, or otherwise they are severely punished. After serving in the palace, these young men are preferred to high employments.

Quiteve is that kingdom or province of Mocaranga, now named Sofala from the river of that name by which it is pervaded. Sabanda is probably the kingdom or province of Sabia, on the river of that name, the southern province of Mocaranga, Chicanga is what is now called Manica, the south west province of Mocaranga, the king or chief of which province is named Chicanga.

The Butua of the text is probably the kingdom of Abutua of modern maps, in the interior of Africa, directly west from the northern part of Mocaranga. The distance between Abutua and the eastern confines of Benguela, one of the provinces of Angola or Congo, is about 800 or 900 miles.

The chief of Mocaranga is named Monomotapa, which latter is often used as the name of the country. His residence is said to be at Zimbao near the northern frontiers, between the Portuguese forts of Sena and Tete.

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The servants within the palace, and those without, are commanded by two captains or high officers, resembling the Alcalde de los Donzeles, or governor of the noble youths, formerly at the court of Spain. The principal officers of the crown are, the Ningomoaxa or governor of the kingdom, Mocomoaxa or captain-general, Ambuya or high steward, whose office it is to procure a successor, when the Mazarira or principal wife of the king dies, who must always be chosen from among the sisters or nearest relations of the king. The next great officer is the Inbantovo or chief musician, who has many musicians under his charge; the Nurucao, or captain of the vanguard; Bucurumo, which signifies the king's right hand; Magande, or the chief conjurer; Netambe, or chief apothecary, who has charge of the ointments and utensils for sorcery; and lastly, the Nehono or chief porter. All these offices are discharged by great lords. They use no delicacy in cookery, having all their meats roasted or boiled; and they eat of such articles as are used by the Europeans, with the addition of rats and mice, which they reckon delicacies, as we do partridges and rabbits. The king has many wives, nine of whom only are reckoned queens, and are all his sisters or near relations; the rest being the daughters of noblemen. The chief wife is called Mazarira, or the mother of the Portuguese, who frequently make presents to her, as she solicits their affairs with the king, and he sends no messengers to them but accompanied by some of her servants. The second queen is called Inahanda, who solicits for the Moors. The others Nabuiza, Nemangore, Nizingoapdngi, Navembo, Nemongoro, Nessani, and Necarunda. Every one of these lives apart in as great state as the king, having certain revenues and districts appointed for their expenses. When any of these die, another is appointed to her place and name, and they have all the power of rewards and punishments, as well as the king. Sometimes he goes to them, and, at other times they come to him; all of them having many female attendants, whom the king makes use of when he thinks proper. The principal nation of Monomotapa is called the Mocarangi, and of which the emperor is a native. They are by no means warlike, and their only weapons are bows, arrows, and javelins. In regard to religion, they acknowledge one only God, and believe in a devil or evil spirit, called Muzuco, but they have no idols. They believe that their deceased kings

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go to heaven, and invoke these under the appellation of Musimos, as the saints are invoked by the Catholics. Having no letters, their only knowledge of past events is preserved by tradition. The lame and blind are called the king's poor, because they are charitably maintained by him; and when any of these travel, the towns through which they pass are obliged to maintain them and furnish them with guides from place to place, an excellent example for Christians. The months are divided into three Weeks of ten days each, and have several festivals. The first day of each month is the festival of the new moon; and the fourth and fifth day of every week are kept as festivals. On these days all the natives dress in their best apparel, and the king gives public audience to all who present themselves, on which occasion he holds a truncheon about three quarters of a yard long in each hand, using them to lean upon. Those who speak, to him prostrate themselves on the ground, and his audience lasts from morning till evening. When the king is indisposed, the Ningomoaxa, or governor of the kingdom, stands in his place. No one must speak to the king, or even go to the palace, on the eighth day of the moon, as that day is reckoned unlucky. On the day of the new moon, the king runs about the palace with two javelins in his hand, as if fighting, all the great men being present at this pastime. When this is ended, a pot full of corn, boiled whole, is brought in, which the king scatters about, desiring the nobles to eat, and every one strives to gather most to please him, and eat it greedily as if it were the most savory dainty. Their greatest festival is held on the new moon in May, which they call Chuavo. On this day all the great men of the empire, who are very numerous, resort to court, where they run about with javelins in their hand, as in a mock fight. This sport lasts the whole day, at the end of which the king withdraws, and is not seen for eight days afterwards, during all which time the drums beat incessantly; He then reappears on the ninth day, and orders the noble for whom he has least affection to be slain, as a sacrifice to his ancestors, or the Muzimos. When this is done, the drums cease, and every one goes home. The Mumbos eat human flesh, which is publicly sold in the shambles. This may suffice for the customs of the natives in the empire of Monomotapa, as it would be endless to recount the whole.

Mumbos: This savage race are said to inhabit on the north western frontiers of Mocaranga.

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After some stay at Mozambique, Barreto set out on his expedition for the mines of Monomotapa, with men, horses, camels, and other necessaries for war, and with proper tools for working the mines which he expected to conquer. He sailed up the river Cuama, called Rio de los buenos Sennales, or river of Good Signs, by the first discoverers, and came to Sena or the fort of St Marzalis, according to the desire of father Monclaros; whence he proceeded to the town of Inaparapala, near which is another town belonging to the Moors, who, being always professed enemies to the Christians, began to thwart the designs of the Portuguese as they had formerly done in India. They even attempted to poison the Portuguese army, and some of the men and horses actually died in consequence; but the cause being discovered by one of the Moors, they were all put to the sword, their chiefs being blown from the mouths of cannon, the informer only being pardoned. After this Barreto sent an embassy to the king, desiring permission to march against the chief of the Mongas, who was then in rebellion, and from thence to continue his march to the mines of Butua and Mancica. The first of these requests was a piece of flattery to obtain leave for the other, as the province of the Mongas lay between Sena and the mines, and it was necessary to march thither by force of arms. The king gave his consent to both requests, and even offered to send 100,000 of his own men along with the Portuguese; but Barreto declined any assistance, wishing to have the whole honor of the war to himself, and thinking by that means to gain favour with the king. He accordingly marched with 23 horse and 560 foot armed with muskets; and after a march of ten days, mostly along the rapid river Zambeze, in which the troops suffered excessively from hunger and thirst, the enemy were descried covering the hills and valleys with armed men. Though the multitude of the enemy was so great that the extremity of their army could not be seen, Barreto marched on giving the command of the man to Vasco Fernandez Homem, while he led the rear in person, the baggage and a few field pieces being in the center. On coming up to engage the cannon were removed to the front and flanks. The enemy were drawn up in the form of a crescent; and as the Portuguese marched to the charge, an old woman came forward to meet them scattering some powder towards them, having persuaded the enemy that she alone would gain the victory by virtue of that powder. Barreto understood the meaning

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of this superstitious act, having seen similar things in India, and gave orders to level a field piece at the notorious witch, which was so well pointed that she was blown to atoms, at which the Kafirs were astonished, as they believed her immortal. The enemy however advanced, but without any order, either from ignorance or because they relied on their immense numbers, and discharged clouds of arrows and darts against the Portuguese; but finding that the musketeers slew them by hundreds at every discharge, they took to flight, and great numbers of them were slain in the pursuit. Barreto continued his march for the city of the Mongas, and was opposed by another multitude similar to the former which was put to flight with equal facility, above 6000 of the Kafirs being slain with the loss of only two Portuguese soldiers. The city was abandoned by the enemy and taken possession of by Barreto without opposition, in which he entrenched his small army. Next morning a multitude of Kafirs as large as either of the former appeared to assail the Portuguese; but being again routed with prodigious slaughter, a messenger arrived to beg for peace. Barreto answered that he would wait upon the king, when all matters might be adjusted. He accordingly marched next day, and having encamped in a convenient place, a new embassy came from the king to solicit peace. While the Kafir ambassadors were conferring with Barreto, one of the camels belonging to the Portuguese happened to break loose and came up to where Barreto was, who stopped it till those who were seeking for it came up. The Kafir ambassadors had never before seen a camel, and were astonished to see it come up to the governor, at whom they asked many questions concerning the strange animal. Taking advantage of their ignorance and credulity, Barreto told them that those animals fed only on human flesh, devouring all that were slain in battle; and that this camel had come to him from the rest to desire that he would not make peace as they would then have no food. Astonished at this intelligence, they desired the camels to be satisfied with good beef, and they would immediately supply him with great numbers of cattle. He granted their request and marched on, still in much distress for provisions. At this time news was brought of some transactions at Mozambique which rendered his presence there necessary, on which he assigned the command of the army to Vasco Fernandez Homem, and departed for Mozambique. Antonio Pereyra

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Brandam had committed certain crimes at the Moluccas, for which on his return to Portugal he was banished into Africa, on which he requested Barreto to take him to Mozambique, which he did accordingly, and even gave him the command of the fort at that place. Though eighty years of age, Brandam wished to secure himself in the command of the fort by sending false information to the king against Barreto his benefactor. By some means these papers were intercepted and sent to Barreto, who on his arrival at Mozambique immediately shewed them to Brandam, who fell on his knees and asked pardon in the most humble manner. Barreto forgave him, but deprived him of the command over the fort at Mozambique, which he committed to the charge of Lorenzo Godino, and returned to prosecute the expedition in Monomotapa. On his arrival at Sena, where Homem had halted with the army, Monclaros accosted him in a violent manner, commanding him to desist from that wild enterprise of conquering the mines, in which he had imposed on the king, declaring that he should be held responsible for all who had died or might die in future in this wild and impracticable design. It is certain that Barreto was not the promoter of this intended conquest, and that Monclaros was actually to blame for the miscarriage; yet Barreto took the insolence of this proud priest so much to heart that he died in two days without any other sickness. Assuredly the Jesuit had more to answer for on account of the death of the governor, than he for the unfortunate result of the expedition, which was all owing to the arrogant ignorance of the Jesuit in forcing it into a wrong direction. Thus fell, by the angry words of a priest, a great man who had escaped from many bullets among the Indians, from numerous darts and arrows of the Mongas, and from the malice of a villain. King Sebastian greatly lamented his untimely end, which he expressed by giving an honorable reception to his body when brought to Lisbon. After the death of Barreto, a royal order was found among his papers by which Vasco Fernandez Homem was appointed his successor. By the persuasions of Monclaros, who was now disgusted with the expedition of Monomotapa, Homem returned with the troops to Mozambique, abandoning the projected conquest of the mines. At that place some judicious persons, and particularly Francisco Pinto Pimentel, urged him to resume the execution of the orders which had been given

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by the king to Barreto, and he determined upon resuming the enterprise for the conquest of Monomotapa; but as Monclaros was now gone back to Portugal, he found himself at liberty to take the route for the mines through Sofala, as Barreto wished to have done originally. Landing therefore at Sofala, he marched directly inland towards the mines of Manica in the kingdom of Chicanga, bordering by the inland with the kingdom of Quiteve which is next in power to Monomotapa. To conciliate the king of Quiteve, Homem sent messengers with presents to request the liberty of passing through his dominions, but being jealous of his intentions, that king received his propositions very coldly. Homem advanced however, having nearly a similar force with that which accompanied Barreto on the former expedition into the kingdom of Monomotapa, and several bodies of Kafirs that attempted to stop his progress were easily routed with great slaughter. Finding himself unable to defend himself against the invaders by force of arms, the king of Quiteve had recourse to policy, and caused all the people and provisions to be removed from the towns, so that the Portuguese suffered extreme distress till they arrived at Zimbao, the residence of the king, whence he had fled and taken refuge in inaccessible mountains. Homem burnt the city, and marched on to the kingdom of Chicanga, where he was received by the king rather through fear than love, was supplied with provisions, and allowed a free passage to the mines. At these the Portuguese vainly expected that they would be able to gather gold in great abundance; but seeing that the natives procured only very small quantities in a long time and with much difficulty, and being themselves very inexpert in that labor, they soon abandoned the place which they had so long and anxiously sought for, and returned towards the coast, parting from

In modern geography, which indeed is mainly ignorant of the foreign possessions of the Portuguese, the dominion of Sofala on both sides of the river of that name, extend about 320 miles from east to west, in lat. 20° S. from the Mozambique channel, by about 100 miles in breadth. The commercial station of Sofala belonging to the Portuguese is at the mouth of the river; and about 220 miles from the sea is a town called Zimbao of Quiteve. Manica the kingdom of Chicanga is an inland district to the west of the kingdoms of Sofala and Sabia; all three dependent upon Monomotapa.

This Zimbao of Quiteve is to be carefully distinguished from a town of the same name in Monomotapa. The former is nearly in lat. 20° S. on the river of Sofala, the latter is about 16° 20' S. near the river Zambezi or Cuama.

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from the king of Chicanga in much friendship. Thus, though disappointed in their main design of acquiring rich gold mines, the ease with which they had penetrated to the place evinced how great an error had been formerly committed by subjecting Barreto to the direction of Monclaros, who had led him by a tedious and dangerous way merely to gratify his own extravagant humor. Homem returned to the kingdom of Quiteve, and the king of that country now permitted him to march for the mines of Maninnas, on condition that the Portuguese should pay him twenty crowns yearly. Homem accordingly marched for the kingdom of Chicova, which borders upon the inland frontier of Monomotapa towards the north, having heard that there were rich mines of silver in that country. Having penetrated to Chicova, he inquired among the natives for the way to the mines; and as they saw that it was in vain for them to resist, while they feared the discovery of the mines would prove their ruin, they scattered some ore at a place far distant from the mines, and shewing this to the Portuguese told them that this was the place of which they were in search. By this contrivance the Kafirs gained time to escape, as the Portuguese permitted them to go away, perhaps because they were unwilling the natives should see what treasure they procured. Homem accordingly caused all the environs to be carefully dug up, and after a vast deal of fruitless labor was obliged to desist, as provisions grew scarce. Thus finding no advantage after all his fatigues and dangers, Homem marched away towards the coast with part of his troops, intending to return to his government at Mozambique, and left Antonio Cardoso de Almeyda with 200 men to continue the researches for some time for the treasures that were said to abound in that country. Cardoso suffered himself to be again deceived by the Kafirs who had before imposed upon Homem, as they now offered to conduct him to where he might find a vein of silver. But they led him the way of death rather than of the mines, and killed him and all his men after defending themselves with incredible bravery.

Maninnas: No such place is laid down in modern maps, but rich gold mines are mentioned in Mocaranga near mount Fura, which is nearly in the route in dicated in the text, between Sofala or Quiteve and Chicova.

Chicova is a territory and town of Mocaranga or Monomotapa, in lat. 19° N. at the north-west boundary of that empire on the Zambeze; and is said to abound in mines of silver.

Taken from: Ethiopia oriental, Volume 1 By João dos Santos. (d1622); His book is about 1580-1600.

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CHAPTER XI

From the mountain called Fura and some ancient ruins that are said to have been the trading post of Queen Sheba or Solomon.

Near the town of Massapa is a very high and large mountain called Fura where much of the kingdom of Manamotapa can be discovered and for this reason the king does not allow the Portuguese to climb this mountain as they do not appreciate the grandeur and beauty of their lands where so many gold mines are hidden. At the top of this mountain, there are still some pieces of old walls and some ancient ruins made of stone and lime that clearly demonstrate that there are already strong houses and rooms there, something that is not found in all of Cafraria because even the houses of the kings are made of wood, dammed with clay and covered with straw. The natives of these lands, and particularly some ancient Moors, say that it is a tradition of their ancestors that those houses were formerly trading posts for the queen of Sheba ……

End of the Middle-Ages view of Swahili Expansion in Monomotapa by the Portuguese.

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The Swahili maritime world of the late 1400s extended from Barawa in modern Somalia to Inhambane south of Sofala in modern Mozambique. To the west, Swahili merchants were scattered very deep into the Sofalan hinterland and were in significant numbers even on the Zimbabwe plateau. To the east, Swahili and Comorian merchant and agricultural communities existed on both the east and west coasts of Madagascar. (1998 Jeremy G. Prestholdt)

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol III p17

SUMMARY BY ANTÓNIO CARNEIRO, SECRETARY OF STATE, OF LETTERS FROM AFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE TO THE KING

(in 1511) Item, that in his opinion the Moors of Sofala should not be cast out but rather left alone and allowed to go and come to the Kaffirs’ houses. And that many people would be required to cast them out.

And that even if they were to be cast out nothing would come of it, for he has learned that in the land of Monomotapa there are more than ten thousand Moors spread out at random and that it is impossible to cast them out.

And that if they could be wholly cut off in Mozambique and in Angoxe and up-country they could do no damage and would of necessity become friends.

And that this can be done with a brace of the smallest caravels and 30 men who would always keep Angoxe busy and winter there and always remain there and have no other task.

And if this is not done nothing can be done to keep the small sambuks from sailing.

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol VIII p49

Carta (copy) do Padre Jesuíta Luís Fróis, Goa, 1561 Dezembro 15.

…… certain rich and wealthy Moors who dwelt there (in Monomotapa) and who were highly displeased at the king’s conversion (to become Christian); having ease of access to the king, and being on familiar terms with him, being also great sorcerers and deceivers, they called on him under the pretext of sympathizing with his misfortune and the perdition of his kingdom and state and began to persuade him that the priest was most assuredly a great sorcerer and an evil man, accusing him falsely of many things which Antonio Caiado later described in a letter to a friend of his, which letter found its way here and the false charges being as I will say hereunder; and in this conspiracy and malice a Moor from Mozambique, who is a veritable Mafamede [Muhammad] was the most conspicuous. His name is Mingame and he is a Qadi of the Moors. When he could not speak with the king in person, he sent him a clever young man, likewise a Moor, who under colour of business poured out his devilish poison conspiring against the priest; the following being what they reported to the king concerning him. ― The Moorish ‘engangas’ -the greatest sorcerers in the land, who forecast the future by means of four sticks told him that the priest had been sent by the governor of India and the captain of Sofala to spy out the land and discover if there was much people in it so as to send back a message without loss of time and cause a great army to come over and kill the king and take his kingdom away from him . …………

As to the history of Zimbabwe; there is also a webpage on Muna-batur (Butua or Abutua) under the section archaeology.