Thread and cloth.

------------------

 From Amerigo Vespucci 1508: How they dress in Kilwa where according to him Arabia already starts.

Taken from: CRAFT AND INDUSTRY by Adria LaViolette in The Swahili World (2018).

 

Before local manufacturing of cotton cloth on the coast, a variety of woven plant and tree fibres (such as kapok) as well as leather were probably the main source of coastal clothing (Brown 1988; Horton 2004); by the Portuguese period raffia fibre, still in use in the Comoros to make fine clothing, was not being noted in accounts of the mainland coast (Prestholdt 1998). In late first-millennium Swahili sites, there is as yet no evidence of the cotton cloth that would become such an important local industry; at Tumbe (and the small village of Kimimba nearby), for example, Sarah Walshaw (2010) identified only a few seeds consistent with baobab and (wild) cotton. Also, as with other coastal sites of this period, there were no spindle whorls to indicate thread being spun (Fleisher and LaViolette 2013).

Just a short time later, however, by the founding eleventh-century levels of the nearby town of Chwaka, there is abundant botanical evidence for cotton (Walshaw 2010), plus spindle whorls, made of rounded local or imported-ceramic potsherds (at Shanga and Kilwa there are purpose-made terracotta examples; Horton 2004) in keeping with contemporary coastal trends (Chittick 1974; Horton 1996: 336–341; Kusimba 1996). Horton (2004) attributes this burst of cotton production to technology transfer from India (cf. Brown 1988). In the absence of robust botanical evidence from many sites, or the survival of wooden loom elements of any kind, spindle whorls are the major index for thread and cloth production.

 

Shanga (Horton 1996, this volume) produced a variety of evidence for cloth production, beginning with spindle whorls from around 1000 CE, which peaked in number about a century later, and faded out c. 1300. Horton (2004) also located timber sheds attached to multiple houses with associated stone tanks dating to the fourteenth century, which he suggests could be related to cloth treatment and dyeing. Increases in production of both thread and cloth during the early second millennium suggest growing demand for them locally, and its production for export to interior continental locations and elsewhere, but by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a reduction in spindle-whorl evidence suggests that locally spun thread had become less desirable (Kusimba 1997: 510–11; Horton 2004). More prestigious cloth and clothing options, by that time, were imported cottons and silks particularly from India; they were worn in that form, but also became raw materials for an expanded Swahili weaving industry.

Textiles were ultimately produced in many coastal towns: major centres included Mogadishu, Pate, Kilwa, Sofala and the Kirimba Islands and nearby mainland in Mozambique. Based on accounts from Ibn Battuta, Mogadishu was exporting cotton cloth to the Persian Gulf and Egypt in the 14^th century.

A tiny square of indigo-dyed cotton cloth was found in 1984 in association with the eleventh-century Mtambwe coin hoard on Pemba (Horton et al. 1986); Horton (2004) suggests it is a likely Indian import, but could have been made locally (Horton, in press; LaViolette)

The Kilwa Chronicle relating the purchase of Kilwa island clearly illustrate the importance of textiles and its link to Islam. (See my webpage on the Kilwa Chronicle).

 

Taken from: GLOBAL COMMERCE, SOUTH ASIA AND THE SWAHILI WORLD by Rahul Oka (2018)

 

By the eleventh–twelfth centuries CE, some Swahili sites were emerging as regional centres of cloth production, namely Kilwa, Zeila, Kisimayo and Shanga (Horton 1996; Fleisher 2014). The cloth industry served as both a key revenue source for the towns and as material ways to mediate status. Coastal cloth was produced in two ways:

-Local cotton was grown, spun into threads and woven into fabrics.

-Coloured cloths  were imported from South Asia, and were then separated into individual threads and rewoven into cloth for local tastes and preferences (Oka 2008).

By 1200 CE, South Asian cloth did not satisfy local tastes and preferences until it was rewoven locally. However, in this period, South Asian and other foreign traders had no incentive, nor the ability, to destroy the coastal cloth system, especially since cloth was purchased from South Asia.

The South Asian cloth industry, despite or probably because of its cheapness, was unable or unwilling to displace/replace the Swahili rewoven cloth industry. Since South Asian cloth could not directly satisfy the tastes and preferences of African consumers unless it was woven to Swahili tastes.

 

Taken from: Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, 1500-1800 by E. Alpers 1976.

 

No matter who was doing the actual trading, the products of Gujarat clearly continued to dominate the trade of East Africa during the seventeenth century, and most of the products of East Africa were consumed by Gujarat. In 1630 Jean Mocquet noted that dertangil, a cotton cloth dyed blue or dark purple, was the proper trading cloth for the East African market. This seems to have been a specific kind of plain white calico, or bafia, which was taken bleached to Agra and Ahmedabad, near the source of indigo, to be dyed blue, black, or red. For the decades after 1630 Tavernier notes that ‘‘these kinds of cotton cloth, which cost from 2 to 12 rupees the piece, are exported to the coast of Melinde, and they constitute the principal trade done by the Governor of Mozambique,” about which he was unusually well informed.

 

End of he Middle-Ages View on Cotton/ Cloth by the Portuguese.

 

Note the following words:

Almadias: A small African canoe made of the bark of trees.

Zambuk: Sambuk; is a type of dhow, a traditional wooden sailing vessel.

 

Taken from: The first Booke of the Historie of the Discoverie and Conquest of the East Indias by the Portingals, in the time of King Don John, the second of that name. By Hernan Lopes de Castaneda. Translated into English by Nicholas Lichefield 1582.

 

(When describing the first trip of Vasco da Gama to India: 1497–1499).

 

(Close to Mozambique when trying to take hostages)

……… On this occasion, Paulo de la Gama seized four Moors who were in a boat; but a great many Moors in other boats escaped, by hastening on shore and leaving their boats behind, in which our men found much cotton cloth, and several books of their Mahometan law, which the general ordered to be preserved.

 

…………. In this city (Malindi) also there are many Gentiles from the kingdom of Cambaya in India, who are great merchants and trade to this place for gold, which is found in this country, as likewise ambergris, ivory, pitch, and wax; all of which commodities the inhabitants of Melinda exchange with the merchants of Cambaya for copper, quicksilver, and cotton cloth, to the profit and advantage of both parties. ……………

 

(When describing the first trip of Vasco da Gama on his way back from India: 1497–1499).

…………………. the island of Zenziber, which is in six degrees of S. latitude, at ten leagues distance from the continent. This is a considerable island, having other two in its neighbourhood, one called Pemba, and the other Moyfa (Mafia). These islands are very fertile, having abundance of provisions, and great quantities of oranges. The inhabitants are Moors, who are by no means warlike and have few weapons, but are well clothed in silk, and cotton vestments, which they purchase at Mombaza from the merchants of Cambaya. …………..

 

Taken from: Álvaro Velho: Roteiro da primeira viagem de Vasco da Gama. (1497-1499).

Álvaro Velho was on board but left on the return at Sierra Leone.

 

[Moçambique]

………… In the almadias we found fine cotton-stuffs, baskets made of palm-fronds, a glazed jar containing butter, glass phials with scented water, books of the Law, a box containing skeins of cotton, a cotton net, and many small baskets filled with millet. ………

 

Taken from: Chronica d'el-rei D. Manuel by Góis, Damião de, 1502-1574; Pereira, Gabriel, d. 1911 (1909) Vol 4

 

(Tristao da Cunha has Brava Looted in 1506)

…………… When that was done he ordered the city to be plundered, in which they found very rich spoils of gold, silver, stones, silk cloths, cotton, ivory, amber, and many odors, spices, and all kinds of merchandise, and it was so much that it was not possible to find it in all nations of the fleet. ……………

 

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol I

 

ACCOUNT OF THE VOYAGE OF D. FRANCISCO DE ALMEIDA, VICEROY OF INDIA, ALONG THE EAST COAST OF AFRICA (Manuscrito de Valentim Fernandes d1519)

[1506] (This is the eyewitness account of Hans Mayer)

 

(Trade goods in Kilwa looted by Tristao da Cunha)

………… Here they found quantities of drinking water and vials of good perfume which is sent abroad. Quantities of glass of all sorts, and many kinds of cotton cloth. Large sacks of resin and gum and a great amount of gold and silver and seed-pearl (a tiny pearl weighing less than a quarter of a grain). ……………

………… There is a great amount of very good cotton that is grown and sown on the island. ………

 

(Trade goods in Mombasa looted by Tristao da Cunha)

………………… Many houses fell in this fire and great wealth was burned, for it was from here that the trade with Sofala and Cambay was carried on by sea. ……………

……………… And there were in the city quantities of cotton cloth from Cambay because all this coast dresses in these cloths and has no others. ……

……………… They found a great number of very rich cloths, of silk and gold, carpets and saddle-cloths, especially one carpet that cannot be bettered anywhere and which was sent to the king of Portugal with many other articles of great value. ……………

 

SUMMARY OF A LETTER FROM PERO FERREIRA FOGAÇA, CAPTAIN OF KILWA, TO THE KING

1506 August 31

………… Item, that Gonçalo Vaaz sent to Sofala all the cloths taken in Kilwa (sack of Kilwa) and three Moors captured in the sambuk from Mombasa the three Moors were ransomed for 400 miticals (1= 4.25gr of gold) of gold and when the cloths were valued they were worth 13,300 miticals. ………

 

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol II

 

LETTER FROM DIOGO VAZ, FACTOR OF MOZAMBIQUE, TO ESTÊVÃO VAZ, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE CASAS DA INDIA E GUINÉ

Mozambique, 1509 September 4

………………… and while he was here (Duarte de Lemos) Cide Abubacar arrived here with another Moor from Malindi where both are very eminent men, bringing their sambuks loaded with cloth from Cambay amounting to one hundred thousand odd cloths, and he allowed them to go to Angoxe to trade and do as they liked with the said cloths, whereupon the said Moors went straight to Angoxe and as soon as they arrived there, sent out their factors throughout the coast and thus gathering all the ivory and .....……we are now informed that they have sent a great number of them to Quama, 15 or 20 leagues from Sofala, … All this land is full of cloths whilst ours is so far gone that I dare not tell you. ……………

 

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol III

 

SUMMARY BY ANTÓNIO CARNEIRO, SECRETARY OF STATE OF LETTERS FROM ANTÓNIO DE SALDANHA, CAPTAIN OF SOFALA AND MOZAMBIQUE, TO THE KING

 

(In 1511)

…………… Item, that he has learned that all the trade lies in Angoxe and that the merchandise is taken from there to Maena (Cuama is meant) and he says that this Maena is a very great river and that they land a good 6 leagues upstream at the house of an honoured Kaffir, king of that land, and there pay his duties and that he gives them almadias (rowing boat) to take the cloth up-river. ………… a mountain they call Otonga, and there lies a large village where he says all the Kaffir and Moorish merchants of the land gather together and where they sell and set up their markets. …………

 

NOTES MADE BY GASPAR VELOSO, CLERK OF THE FACTORY OF MOZAMBIQUE, AND SENT TO THE KING

(in 1512)

…………… And from here he turned back and came to the kingdom of Monzambia by way of Sofala but not by the way he had gone that he might see other lands. In this kingdom there is cotton cloth which is taken to Menomotapa to be sold.

Item, from Ynhoqua he came to the kingdom of Moziba by way of Sofala. In this land there is nothing save cotton cloth which is made there and taken to Menomotapa to be sold. …………..

…………… trade of Sofala which is marred by a smaller river which runs from Angoxe to join this on (the Zambezi) at Quitengue and along which come many sambuks loaded with cloth which is traded throughout the land. ……………

 

LETTER FROM AFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE TO THE KING Goa, 1514 October 25

 

………………  Symam de Miramda complains of the river Amgoja and of another river which is closer to Sofala than the former. He says that there is where the cloth from Malindi and Mombassa, Brava, Pate and Lamo and Mogadishu comes and there where the naos (vessels) from Cambay come yearly loaded wlth cloth. He says that the cloth slips through in small boats that go along the coast into Amgoja and into the other river …………………

 

LETTER OF DISCHARGE OF DIOGO VAZ, FACTOR OF MOZAMBIQUE Évora, 1520 November 3;

 

about 1513 July 13.

…… 966 yards of Brabant cloth and 2,022 yards of Britanny linen cloth and 11 pipes of flour and 75 empty pipes with 96 iron hoops and 2,871 yards of narrow cloth of the land and 24 silk maramas cloths and 186 macondes cloths ……

 

Taken from : Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol IV

Livro incompleto de receita e despesa de Cristóvão Salema, feitor de Sofala, 1516 Agosto 26,”

 

P303

And he (the factor at Sofala) also received two Maluana fambules unpriced. (= Pieces of cloth from Milwani this is a river opposite the Kirimba islands).

 

Jeremy G. Prestholdt (1998) has the following to say about this:

Milwani was also of major significance in the cross-Mozambique channel trade—a web of commercial networks integrating the mainland, Comoro archipelago, and northwestern Madagascar. Milwani is specifically mentioned in accounts of trade involving northwestern Madagascar; it seems that merchants from the Kirimba archipelago not only frequented Milwani, but many kept permanent trading houses there.

Weavers of the Kirimba Islands created mass quantities of dark blue cloth that came to be known simply as “Milwani cloth”—after the river whose banks grew congested with refugees following Zimba incursions in the late sixteenth century. In the Kirimba Islands indigo was grown primarily on Kirimba and Kiswi at the mouth of the Milwani river (Miluâne or Melluane in the Portuguese sources).

 

P309

And he (the factor at Sofala) also received three cloths of the Island of Sam Lourenço, rough, with red stripes, unpriced.

And he also received two pallma cloths from the Island of Sam Lourenço, unpriced.

P343

And also one cloth of the Island of Sam Lourenço edged with red, unpriced.

 

Jeremy G. Prestholdt (1998) has the following to say about this:

At the extreme end of the Mozambique channel commercial zone, western Madagascar produced raffia cloths for selling to the East African coast, as well as striped cotton and silk cloths for buyers in the Sofala hinterland.

 

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol V

 

LETTER FROM CRISTÓVÃO DE TAVORA, CAPTAIN AND GOVERNOR OF SOFALA AND MOZAMBIQUE, TO THE KING Mozambique, 1517 Feb. 15

 

………… one day at dawn a zambuk, loaded with cloth, came to the Islands of San Jorge (in front of Mozambique island) when the Comceyçam was lying there and, afraid of the nao (ship), drew so near to the land that it ran aground whilst the Moors fled and left the zambuk where it lay. Word of this came to me and I went there to see what had happened. I found that the bales of cloth were already in the water. I recovered as many as I could …………

 

EXTRACT FROM A LETTER FROM D. ANTÓNIO DA SILVEIRA TO THE KING [Post 1518 July 18]

 

…………… the coast should be very well guarded in such a way as to prevent zambuks from coming with cloth to the Islands of Amgoja because much of it goes from there to Kuama and this corrupts the land …………

 

(When talking about the Moorish merchants of Cambay who cannot do without ships arriving for their trade). For cloth and beads are to the Kaffirs what peper is to Flanders and corn to us, because they cannot live without, this merchandise or lay up their treasures with it. ……

 

LETTER FROM CRISTÓVÃO DE TÁVORA, CAPTAIN AND GOVERNOR OF SOFALA AND MOZAMBIQUE, TO THE KING Mozambique, 1517 Sept. 20.

 

P202

…… a zambuk went with cloth from Amguoja to Cuama and there they went inland with thiriy Negrões loaded with it. If this 'be true, or not, I cannot learn until I go to Sofala, but Your Highness can be assured that this passage of Amgoja is very harmful to the 'trade of Sofala, because they give their merchandise for less than balf of its price in Sofala, and the greater part of these merchants are from Mombasa. ……

 

EXTRACT FROM A LETTER FROM D. ANTÓNIO DA SILVEIRA TO THE KING [Post 1518 July 18]

 

…………… the coast should be very well guarded in such a way as to prevent zambuks from coming with cloth to the Islands of Amgoja because much of it goes from there to Kuama and this corrupts the land …………

 

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol VI

 

LETTER FROM SEBASTIÃO DE SOUSA TO THE KING Mozambique, 1521 September 17

 

……  I, Sire, have sure advice that on this northern part of the Island of Sam Lourenço there is trade with all these Islands of the Comaro (=Comoros) and of Melluane (1), and many other places on this coast of Malindi, and they tell me that, if a caravel is brought to these parts in the monsoon, great service will be done to Your Highness and that much gain will come to you.

(1) In the Kirimba Islands indigo was grown primarily on Kirimba and Kiswi and at the mouth of the Milwani river (Miluâne or Melluane in the Portuguese sources).

 

INFORMATION SENT BY JORDÃO DE FREITAS TO THE KING Goa, 1530 September 17

 

……   Item, the main cause of chis loss is the great quantity of cloth that finds its way there, both by the trading ship and by the Moors of Mombasa, Malindi and Pate, since all of them trade in Cambay, whence goes this merchandise needed in the land. ……

 

Taken from: Documentos Sobre Os Portugueses Em Mocambique E Na Africa Central 1497-1840 Vol VIII.

 

Relação (cópia), feita pelo Padre Francisco de Monclaro, da Companhia de Jesus, da Expedição ao Monomotapa, Comandada por Francisco Barreto, 1573.

 

P391

…… Above Sena, towards the east, on the other side of the river and along it and inland, there is plenty of cotton, wherewith the dwellers thereof make the spun fabric used in making the machiras in which that province abounds, and that land s name is Bororo. (They are paid for with beads). ……

 

P393

…… Besides this there is another, of the black cloth called bertangil, matazes, tafeciras, which also, together with the beads, ensure considerable trade, They want this cloth for unthreading, and by a subtle artifice the thread being stringed with beads, they make rich pieces after their fashion and cloth for wearing with sundry workmanship according to the various colours of the beads, and with them they make strings like twisted hat-strings which they carry about their necks instead of necklace ……

 

Taken from: A description of the coasts of East Africa and Malabar, in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Duarte Barbosa 1514. Transl Stanley.

 

SOFALA

…………… And the mode of their trade is that they come by sea in small barks which they call zanbucs (sambuk), from the kingdoms of Quiloa, and Mombaza, and Melindi; and they bring much cotton cloth of many colours, and white and blue, and some of silk; and grey and red, and yellow beads, which come to the said kingdoms in other larger ships from the great kingdom of Cambay, which merchandise these Moors buy and collect from other Moors who bring them there, and they pay for them in gold by weight, and for a price which satisfies them; and the said Moors keep them and sell these cloths to the Gentiles of the kingdom of Benamatapa who come there laden with gold, which gold they give in exchange for the before mentioned cloths with-out weighing, and so much in quantity that these Moors usually gain one hundred for one. They also collect a large quantity of ivory, which is found all round Sofala, which they likewise sell in the great kingdom of Cambay at five or six ducats the hundred weight, and so also some amber, which these Moors of Sofala bring them from the Vciques. They are black men, and men of colour — some speak Arabic, and the rest make use of the language of the Gentiles of the country…………

…… The Moors have now recently begun to produce much fine cotton in this country, and they weave it into white stuff because they do not know how to dye it, or because they have not got any colours; and they take the blue or coloured stuffs of Cambay and unravel them, and again weave the threads with their white thread, ,and in this manner they make coloured stuffs, by means of which they get much gold. ……

 

ZINBAOCH. (Zimbabwe)

……….. And in the said Benamatapa, which is a very large town, the king is used to make his longest residence; and it is thence that the merchants bring to Sofala the gold which they sell to the Moors without weighing it, for coloured stuffs and beads of Cambay, which are much used and valued amongst them; ……………

 

RIVER ZUAMA.

……………… by this river, which makes another branch which falls at Angos, where the Moors make use of boats (almadias), which are boats hollowed out from a single trunk, to bring the cloths and other merchandise from Angos, and to transport much gold and ivory. ……………

 

ANGOY.

………… and the Moors who live there are all merchants, and deal in gold, ivory, silk, and cotton stuffs, and beads of Cambay, the same as do those of Sofala. And the Moors bring these goods from Quiloa, and Monbaza, and Melynde, in small vessels ……………

 

MELINDE.

…………… The trade is great which they carry on in cloth, gold, ivory, copper, quicksilver, and much other merchandise, with both Moors and Gentiles of the kingdom of Cambay, who come to their port with ships laden with cloth, which they buy in exchange for gold, ivory, and wax.  Both parties find great profit in this. …………

 

PENDA, MANFIA, AND ZANZIBAR.

…………… In these islands they live in great luxury, and abundance; they dress in very good cloths of silk and cotton, which they buy in Mombaza of the merchants from Cambay, who reside there. ………

 

MAGADOXO.

…………… and is a place of great trade in merchandise. Ships come there from the kingdom of Cambay and from Aden with stuffs (=textiles) of all sorts, and with other merchandise of all kinds, and with spices ……………

 

Taken from: Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama, and his Viceroyalty. From the Lendas da India of Gaspar Correa (1492-1563); accompanied by original documents. Transl Stanley.

 

(First Voyage of Vasco da Gama 1498)

(Several days sailing before passing Sofala)

………… The sambuk was laden with pigeons' dung, which there was in some islands, and they were transporting it, as it was merchandise in Cambay with which they dyed stuffs. ……………….

 

(Second voyage of Vasco da Gama 1502)

(Pero Affonso makes a deal in Sofala)

…………… Then they brought everything before the King, who ordered the merchants of the country to come there, and they separated the goods, each kind by itself, and having counted it all, they weighed gold in small scales, and upon each kind of cloth they placed its price, in the gold which each one was worth. Then the King said that those stuffs were worth the gold which was on the top of them, and that they might take it, and he said that his dues were already accounted for in the weighing, as the merchants paid them. ……

 

Taken from: Lendas da India by Gaspar Correa 16th

 

DOM FRANCISCO, VISOREY

(At Brava 1507)

……………… and he spoke to many people who said they were praying, who were a small number of local Moors, very rich in the clothing business of Cambaya ……………

 

Taken from: The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India ... edited by Walter de Gray Birch 2017.

 

(in 1507)

…………… The end of April was now come, when Francisco de Tavora arrived at the Cape of Guardafum, where the great Afonso Dalboquerque (1453-1515) was stationed, and brought with him in his company Diogo de Melo and Martim Coelho whom he found at Melinde, having come from Portugal; and while all three were in the latitude of Magadaxo, they captured a ship of Cambaya, laden with clothing, and after having stripped her of all she carried, they set her on fire. Afonso Dalboquerque was highly delighted at the arrival of Diogo de Melo and Martin Coelho, and divided with them the spoils of the prize ship; ………